Research Study on Reuse and Recycling of Batteries Employed in Electric Vehicles: The Technical, Environmental, Economic, Energy and Cost Implications of Reusing and Recycling EV Batteries Project Report Prepared for Prepared by in association with and September, 2019 Table of Contents List of Tables .................................................................................................................................................... 7 List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................... 8 List of Acronyms .............................................................................................................................................. 1 Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 1 1 Background and Objectives to the Study ......................................................................................... 1 2 Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 2 3 EV Battery Sales, End-of-Life Projections, Management Options, and Future Designs ................... 3 3.1 EV Sales in the US 2011 to 2018 ............................................................................................................. 3 3.2 Projections of EV Adoption Rates in the US ..................................................................................... 5 3.3 Estimated Amounts of End-of-Life EV Batteries Projected for the US ............................................. 7 3.4 Batteries from Electric Buses in the US ............................................................................................ 9 3.5 Options for EV End of Life Batteries .............................................................................................. 11 3.6 Collection of EV Batteries.............................................................................................................. 12 3.7 Future Li-ion Battery Chemistries .................................................................................................. 13 3.8 Future EV Battery Designs ............................................................................................................. 16 3.9 Projections of Future Cost of EV Batteries ..................................................................................... 18 4 EV Battery Reuse ................................................................................................................................... 20 4.1 EV Battery Reuse Terminology ............................................................................................................. 20 4.2 EV Battery Reuse Examples ........................................................................................................... 20 4.2.1 Reuse in EVs .................................................................................................................................. 24 4.2.2 Reuse of Individual Battery Cells ................................................................................................... 25 4.2.3 Reuse in Energy Storage Systems .................................................................................................. 26 4.3 Examples of EV Battery Reuse Companies ........................................................................................... 30 4.3.1 Spiers New Technologies (SNT), Oklahoma City, US...................................................................... 31 4.3.2 IT Asset Partners (ITAP), Chatsworth, California (US) .................................................................... 34 4.3.3 Other Battery Reuse Companies ................................................................................................... 35 4.4 Costs of EV Battery Reuse .............................................................................................................. 36 4.5 Technical and Policy Issues with EV Battery Reuse ........................................................................ 39 4.5.1 Additional Lifespan in Second Use ................................................................................................ 39 KELLEHER RESEARCH STUDY ON REUSE AND RECYCLING OF BATTERIES EMPLOYED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES FINAL REPORT SEPTEMBER, 2019 PAGE 3 4.5.2 Provenance and Tracking of Reused EV Batteries and Cells .......................................................... 40 4.5.3 Standards, Safety and Standardized Terminology ......................................................................... 41 4.5.4 Liability .......................................................................................................................................... 43 4.5.5 Variability of Chemistries and Cell/Pack Formats .......................................................................... 44 4.5.6 Transportation and Logistics ......................................................................................................... 44 4.5.7 Battery Storage Technology Changes Rapidly ............................................................................... 46 5 EV Battery Recycling ..................................................................................................................... 47 5.1 High Level Description of Recycling Processes and Steps .............................................................. 47 5.2 Major Traditional Nickel and Lithium Battery Recyclers ................................................................ 48 5.2.1 Retriev ........................................................................................................................................... 50 5.2.2 Umicore ......................................................................................................................................... 53 5.2.3 INMETCO, Pennsylvania (US) ......................................................................................................... 55 5.2.4 Glencore-Sudbury Integrated Nickel Operations, Sudbury, Ontario (Canada) .............................. 56 5.2.5 Battery Solutions, Wixom, Michigan (US) ..................................................................................... 57 5.2.6 Raw Materials Company Inc. – Port Colborne, Ontario (Canada) ................................................. 58 5.2.7 EV Battery Recycling by Tesla ........................................................................................................ 58 5.2.8 SungEel MCC Americas (SMCC), Endicott, New York (US) ............................................................. 60 5.2.9 Battery Resourcers, Worcester, Massachusetts (US) .................................................................... 61 5.3 Developing EV Battery Recycling Technologies and Businesses ..................................................... 62 5.3.1 American Manganese Inc. ............................................................................................................. 63 5.3.2 Neometals ..................................................................................................................................... 68 5.3.3 Li-Cycle .......................................................................................................................................... 74 5.3.4 Fortum, Finland ............................................................................................................................. 76 5.3.5 Lithion Recycling Inc. ..................................................................................................................... 77 5.4 Costs of EV Battery Recycling ........................................................................................................ 77 5.4.1 American Manganese Cost Analysis .............................................................................................. 78 5.4.2 Element Energy Cost Analysis ........................................................................................................ 81 5.5 Technical Challenges with EV Battery Recycling ............................................................................ 83 6 Environmental, Energy, and Cost Impacts of EV Battery Reuse and Recycling............................... 86 6.1 Energy and Environmental Impacts of EV Battery Reuse ...................................................................... 86 6.2 Energy Impacts of EV Battery Recycling ......................................................................................... 92 KELLEHER RESEARCH STUDY ON REUSE AND RECYCLING OF BATTERIES EMPLOYED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES FINAL REPORT SEPTEMBER, 2019 PAGE 4 6.3 Environmental Impacts of EV Battery Recycling ............................................................................ 95 6.4 Comparison of Energy and Environmental Impacts of EV Battery Reuse vs. Recycling ............... 103 6.5 Economic Impacts of EV Battery Reuse vs. Recycling................................................................... 104 7 Ongoing Research, Current and Future Legislation .................................................................... 107 7.1 Selected Research in the US ....................................................................................................... 107 7.1.1 US DOE Lithium Battery Research Initiative ...................................................................................