Community management of natural resources in Africa Community management of natural resources in Africa: Impacts, experiences and future directions In many parts of Africa, local communities have depended on, and managed, wildlife as a key resource since the Stone Age. Over the last twenty years, this subsistence strategy has evolved into a development strategy that has become increasingly formalised as “community-based natural resource management” (CBNRM), combining rural development, local empowerment, and nature conservation. Led by new ideas about the merits of decentralized, collective resource governance regimes, and creative field experiments such as Zimbabwe’s CAMPFIRE, these community-based approaches evolved in a wide range of ecological, political, and social contexts across Africa. This review provides an unprecedented pan-African synthesis of CBNRM, drawing on multiple authors and a wide range of documented experiences from Southern, Eastern, Western and Central Africa. The review discusses the degree to which CBNRM has met poverty alleviation, economic development and nature conservation objectives. In its concluding chapter, the report suggests a way forward for strengthening CBNRM and addressing key challenges in the years ahead. The views expressed in this study do not necessarily represent those of the institutions involved. Roe et et al Natural Resource Issues No. 18 . ISBN: 978-1-84369-755-8 ISSN: 1605-1017 Community management of natural resources in Africa Impacts, experiences and future directions Edited by Dilys Roe, Fred Nelson and Chris Sandbrook Community management of natural resources in Africa Impacts, experiences and future directions Edited by Dilys Roe, Fred Nelson and Chris Sandbrook First published by the International Institute for Environment and Development (UK) in 2009 Copyright © International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) All rights reserved ISBN: 978-1-84369-755-8 ISSN: 1605-1017 A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library Copies of this report can be purchased from Earthprint Ltd Email: [email protected] Website: www.earthprint.com Or the IIED website:www.iied.org To contact the editors please write to: Dilys Roe, Fred Nelson and Chris Sandbrook International Institute for Environment and Development, 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1H 0DD, UK. Tel: +44 (0)20 7388 2117 Fax: +44 (0)20 7388 2826 Email: [email protected], [email protected] and [email protected] Citation: Roe D., Nelson, F., Sandbrook, C. (eds.) 2009. Community management of natural resources in Africa: Impacts, experiences and future directions, Natural Resource Issues No. 18, International Institute for Environment and Development, London, UK. Design: Eileen Higgins, email: [email protected] Cover photo: Headline rock-art in the Game Pass Shelter, Kamberg, Drakensberg, South Africa, Kwazulu-Natal, by McPHOTO / Still Pictures Printed by: Park Communications, UK on 100% recycled paper using vegetable oil based ink Contents Acronyms ii Acknowledgements v Executive Summary vii 1. Introduction 1 2. The origins and evolution of community-based natural resource 5 management in Africa 3. Community involvement in natural resources management in Africa 13 – regional overviews 3.1 Introduction: Different understandings of, and approaches to, CBNRM in different regions 13 3.2 Central Africa 15 3.3 East Africa 26 3.4 Southern Africa 34 3.5 West Africa 40 3.6 Summary 49 4. What has CBNRM achieved in Africa? The ‘3Es’ – empowerment, 55 economics, environment i 4.1 Empowerment 55 4.2 Economics 64 4.3 Environment 81 5 CBNRM as a mechanism for addressing global environmental challenges 95 6. CBNRM in Africa – opportunities and challenges 105 7 Where next? A policy road map for CBNRM across Africa 121 References 131 Annex 1: The policy and legal framework for CBNRM in Africa 155 Annex 2: Formal CBNRM provisions in Africa 167 Annex 3: The scale of PAs and communally managed areas in African countries 180 Annex references 183 Acronyms AA Authorized Association AALS Affirmative Action Loan Scheme ACODEP Support to Decentralised Collectives for Participatory Development ACPN-IM L’Action Communautaire pour la Protection de la Nature Itombwe Mwenga ADMADE Administrative Management and Design for Game Management Areas AfD Agence Française de Développement A/R Afforestation / Reforestation AVIGREF Villagers’ Association for the Management of Wildlife Reserves AWF African Wildlife Foundation BINGO Large multi-national conservation and development NGO BMU Beach Management Units CAFT Coopérative Agro Forestière de la Trinationale CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CAR Central African Republic CARPE Central African Regional Program for the Environment CASS Centre for Applied Social Sciences CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBFF Congo Basin Forest Fund CBFM Community Based Forest Management CBFP Congo Basin Forest Partnership CBNRM Community Based Natural Resource Management CBNRZ Community Based Natural Resource Zone ii CBO Community Based Organisation CCA Community Conserved Areas CDM Clean Development Mechanism CDT Community Development Trust CENAGREF National Centre for Wildlife Management CFM Collaborative Forest Management CFR Community Forest Reserve CHA Controlled Hunting Area CI Conservation International CIRAD Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement COBA Communautés de Bases COMIFAC Commission for the Forests of Central Africa CPA Communal Property Association CPAI Community Protected Areas Initiative CR Communites Rurales CREMA Community Resource Management Area DBR Dja Biosphere Reserve DFID Department for International Development DGCID Direction Générale de la Coopération Internationale et Développement DPCEP Dja Periphery Community Engagement Project DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo ECI Environmental Change Institute ECOFAC Conservation et Utilisation Rationnelle des Ecosystemes Forestiers d’Afrique Centrale ECOPAS Ecosystèmes protégés en Afrique Soudano-Sahélienne ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EEF State department of Water and Forests EU European Union FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation FCFA Central African Franc FFEM Fonds Francais pour l’Environnement Mondial FRAME Natural Resource Management Communities GCF Gestion Contractualisée des Forêts GDP Gross Domestic Product GDRN Sustainable Natural Resource Management GEF Global Environment Fund GELOSE Gestion Locale Sécurisée GIE Groupement d’Intérêt Economique GMA Game Management Area GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit HuGo Human Gorilla Conflict Resolution Programme HWC Human Wildlife Conflict ICDP Integrated Conservation and Development Project IIED International Institute for Environment and Development IGF International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife IMCCZ Itombwe Massif Community Conserved Zone IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for Conservation IUCN-ROSA IUCN Regional Office for Southern Africa KNP Kruger National Park iii KWS Kenya Wildlife Service LIFE Living in a Finite Environment LIRDP Luangwa Integrated Resources Development Programme MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreement MEFCPT Ministry of Waters, Forests, Hunting, Fishing, and the Environment MFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs MINEF Ministry of Environment and Forests MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism NACSO Namibia Association of Community Based Natural Resource Management Support Organisations NCRC Nature Conservation Research Centre NDP National Development Plan NEF Near East Foundation NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NP National Park NPWS National Parks and Wildlife Service NTFP Non-Timber Forest Products NRM Natural Resource Management NRMP Natural Resources Management Project OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PA Protected Area PAC Problem Animal Control PEAP Poverty Eradication Action Plan PES Payments for Ecosystem Services PFM Participatory Forest Management PNGT Programme National de Gestion des Terroirs PNGTER Rural Land Management and Community Infrastructure Development project PoW Programme of Work PROGEPP Projet Gestion des Ecosystèmes Périphériques au Parc National Nouabalé-Ndoki RAF Reorganisation Agraire et Fonciere RDC Rural District Council RéCoPriBa La Réserve Communautaire des Primates de Bakumbule REDD Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation RENGYIT La Réserve communautaire Ngira’Yitu ROC Republic of Congo SACOLA Sabyinyo Community Lodge Association SANParks South Africa National Parks SASUSG Southern Africa Sustainable Use Specialist Group SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SLG Local Management Agency SODEFOR Societe de Developpement des Forets en Cote d’Ivoire SWAC Sahel and West Africa Club TANAPA Tanzania National Parks TESFA Tourism in Ethiopia for Sustainable Future Alternatives TGLP Tribal Grazing Land Policy TNRF Tanzania Natural Resource Forum iv TZS Tanzania Shillings UGADEC Union of Associations for Gorilla Conservation and Community Development in eastern DRC UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USA United States of America USAID United States Agency for International Development UWA Uganda Wildlife Authority VLFR Village Land Forest