UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON SOCIAL MIX IN CENTRAL POST-REFORM SHANGHAI Richard Wei-Tse Wang Thesis submitted to the Bartlett School of Planning of University College London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2010 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have submitted for examination for the PhD degree of University College London is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copy right of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my knowledge, infringe the rights of any third party. 2 Abstract Social mix can be observed in many post-reform Chinese cities, yet the topic has so far remained scarcely researched. Using central Shanghai as a focus, this research asks how socially mixed neighbourhoods have emerged, what is their internal structure, and how have locally-based social interactions been affected by the emergence of social mix. Based on a neighbourhood of 5 housing estates and other relevant examples, this study shows that mixed neighbourhoods have emerged from an unplanned and uncoordinated interplay among new market-driven commodity housing developments, counter-market retention mechanisms on traditional estates, government-led socially-orientated housing projects, residents’ resistance to redevelopment, and the lingering socialist legacy of welfare housing and unclear property rights. Significant differences were found in residents’ socio- economic attributes, living conditions, tenure and housing expenditure between the traditional, new middle-income, and new upmarket housing. The process of housing redevelopment and the creation of social mix have diminished locally-based social interactions. Residents’ intra-estate interaction is the strongest in traditional estates, lower in the middle-income estate and minimal in upmarket estates. The level of inter-estate interaction in the mixed neighbourhood is weak. The emergence of social mix has brought about a divergence in lifestyles and lifeworlds among the changed set of residents, which is reflected in the spheres of mobility, residential stability, shopping, and children’s education. The level of inter-estate interaction has reduced from the past when the neighbourhood was more socially homogenous. Findings suggest that social mix and a weakening of local social interaction will likely continue, and these will demand more scrutiny considering China’s development agenda on social harmony. Findings here concur with Western studies on mixed communities that social mix does not lead to social mixing. New policies and programmes to foster social interaction should be explored. 3 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the unwavering support from my beloved parents and brother throughout the doctoral process. Equally, Michael Edwards, my amazing supervisor, who has been instrumental in the process for always believing in my work, and generously offered his time and intellect to help me overcome numerous barriers. I am also greatly indebted to one senior official from Shanghai’s Jing’an District Planning Bureau, whose knowledge and influence has helped this research immensely. In addition, the ORSAS award and UCL have both provided significant financial assistance to this research. Much gratitude is also due to Prof. Zhao Min and Associate Prof. Tong Min and a number of their students at the Department of Architecture and Urban Planning at Shanghai’s Tongji University, and all the people whom I have had the pleasure to meet during the fieldworks for sharing their knowledge and stories. These experiences have greatly enriched this research. Claudio de Magalhães also offered valuable insights on the thesis in the final stage of the work. I would also like to thank my colleagues and dear friends - Sonia, Nikos, Paula, Chris, Cindy, Jun, Catherine, and Daniel - who have accompanied me during various stages of this journey. Finally, a special thanks to the medical team at Taiwan’s Shin Kong Hospital who took care of my spine injury during the research period, and helped me to regain health and complete this endeavour. 4 Table of contents Declaration .......................................................................................................... 2 Abstract ............................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. 4 Table of contents ................................................................................................. 5 List of figures ..................................................................................................... 10 List of tables ...................................................................................................... 12 List of abbreviations .......................................................................................... 15 1 Introduction 1.1 The phenomena: social mix and social mixing ............................................ 16 1.1.1 Transformations in Shanghai’s social pattern .................................... 16 1.1.2 Transformations in Shanghai’s locally-based social interaction ........ 18 1.1.3 Definitions of a mixed neighbourhood ............................................... 20 1.1.4 A personal note: the author and motivations for the research ........... 21 1.2 Research questions and hypotheses .......................................................... 23 1.3 Method ........................................................................................................ 30 1.3.1 Evolution of research ........................................................................ 30 1.3.2 Case study approach ........................................................................ 32 1.3.3 Case selection .................................................................................. 33 1.3.4 Data sources ..................................................................................... 37 1.4 Thesis structure .......................................................................................... 45 2 Social mix: a literature review 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 48 2.2 Importance of social mix ............................................................................. 49 2.2.1 Problems related to social exclusion and segregation ...................... 49 2.2.2 Proclaimed benefits of social mix ...................................................... 52 2.2.3 Proliferation of social mix policies in the West .................................. 55 2.3 Existing explanations on the socio-spatial division of urban space ............. 63 2.3.1 The polarisation thesis ...................................................................... 63 2.3.2 The Welfare State approach ............................................................. 66 2.3.3 Policy-fostered socially-mixed communities ...................................... 69 2.3.4 Community resistance to urban redevelopment ................................ 70 2.3.5 Site characteristics and externalities ................................................. 73 2.4 A framework to examine the mechanisms of mixed neighbourhoods in post- reform Shanghai ............................................................................................... 75 5 3. Social mixing: a literature review 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 87 3.2 Urban restructuring and social interaction in China ..................................... 88 3.2.1 The need for meso level studies ....................................................... 88 3.2.2 Predominant approaches in studying residents’ social dynamics ..... 90 3.2.3 Current knowledge on intra-estate social interaction ........................ 91 3.3 Inter-estate social interaction: Does social mix lead to social interaction? .. 95 3.3.1 Supporting literature .......................................................................... 95 3.3.2 Contesting literature .......................................................................... 96 3.4 Existing findings from mixed neighbourhoods ........................................... 104 3.4.1 Social interaction in mixed (tenure/income) estates ........................ 104 3.4.2 Social interaction in gentrified areas ............................................... 108 3.5 Filling gaps in mixed neighbourhood research .......................................... 112 3.5.1 Gaps in current studies ................................................................... 112 3.5.2 Areas to improve the research on cross-class social interaction ..... 114 4 Urban redevelopment and mixed neighbourhoods in central Shanghai 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 117 4.2 The city of Shanghai ................................................................................. 118 4.2.1 Shanghai’s profile ........................................................................... 119 4.2.2 A brief