© 1999 by CRC Press LLC © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Preface Surface engineering is a new field of science and technology. Although the specific topical groups included in its domain have been known and prac- tically applied in other areas, it is only in the last few years that surface engineering has been recognized as an individual discipline of applied science. This book is the first in the world to provide a complex treatment of problems related to surface engineering. The material of this book has been treated in two parts, so designed as to allow extension in future editions. Part I, devoted to general fundamentals of surface engineering, con- tains a history of its development and a distinction is suggested between superficial layers and coatings. Further, but foremost, the basic potential and usable properties of superficial layers and coatings are discussed, with an explanation of their concept, interaction with other properties and the significance of these properties for the proper selection and func- tioning of surface layers. This part is enriched by a general description of different types of coatings. Part II contains an original classification of production methods of surface layers. This part presents the latest technologies in this field, char- acterized by directional or beam interaction of particles or of the heating medium with the treated surface. Due to its modest length, the book does not discuss older methods which are well known and widely used. This edition is a revised version of the first Polish edition of the book entitled “Surface Engineering of Metals - Principles, Equipment, Tech- nologies”, published by Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne (Science-Tech- nological Publications), Warsaw, 1995. The authors express their gratitude to all who in any way contributed to the presentation of the broad array of problems of surface engineering in this form. In particular, our thanks go to professors: J. Kaczmarek, K.J. Kurzyd≈owski, R. Marczak, B. Ralph, J. Senatorski, J. Tacikowski and W. W≈osiñski, as well as doctors S. Janowski, K. Miernik and J. Walkowicz for their discussion regarding the book and constructive suggestions. Special words of thanks are due to Dr. A. Mazurkiewicz, Director of the Institute of Terotechnology in Radom, for his invaluable help in the preparation of the work for print, and to the publisher, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne, for making information material from the first edi- tion available. The authors thank Mr. A. Kirsz for expert technical assistance for providing camera-ready text. The authors © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Table of Contents Part I. General Fundamentals of Surface Engineering 1. The concept of surface engineering 1.1 The term ”surface engineering” 1.2 Scope of topics forming the concept of surface engineering References 2. Development of surface engineering 2.1 History of development of surface engineering 2.1.1 General laws of development 2.1.2 History of development of metallic structural materials 2.1.3 History of development of the technology of surface improvement of structural materials 2.2 Surface engineering today 2.2.1 General areas of activity of surface engineering 2.2.2 Significance of surface engineering 2.3 Directions of development of surface engineering 2.3.1 Perfection and combination of methods of manufacturing of surface layers 2.3.2Design of surface layers, based on mathematical modeling 2.3.3 Micro and nanometric testing 2.3.4Rational application of surface layers References 3. The solid surface 3.1 The significance of the surface 3.2 The surface - geometrical concept 3.3 The surface - mechanical concept 3.4 The surface - physico-chemical concept 3.4.1 The phase 3.4.2 Interphase surface - a physical surface 3.4.3 Surface energy © 1999 by CRC Press LLC 3.4.4 Surface phenomena References 4. Surface layers References 5. The superficial layer 5.1 Development of concepts regarding the superficial layer 5.2 Shaping of the superficial layer 5.3 Structure of the superficial layer 5.3.1 Simplified models of the superficial layer 5.3.2 The developed model of the superficial layer 5.4 A general characteristic of the superficial layer obtained by machining 5.5 Physical description of the superficial layer 5.6 Strengthening and weakening of the superficial layer 5.7 Potential properties of the superficial layer 5.7.1 Geometrical parameters of the superficial layer 5.7.1.1 Three-dimensional structure of the surface 5.7.1.2 Surface roughness 5.7.1.3 Structural flaws of the three-dimensional surface 5.7.2 Stereometric-physico-chemical parameters of the superficial layer 5.7.2.1 Emissivity 5.7.2.2 Reflectivity 5.7.3 Physico-chemical parameters of the superficial layer 5.7.3.1 General characteristic 5.7.3.2 Metallographic structure 5.7.3.3 Hardness 5.7.3.4 Brittleness 5.7.3.5 Residual stresses 5.7.3.6 Absorption 5.7.3.7 Adsorption 5.7.3.8 Solubility 5.7.3.9 Diffusion 5.7.3.10 Adhesion 5.7.3.11 Catalysis 5.8 Practically usable properties of the superficial layer © 1999 by CRC Press LLC 5.8.1 Strength properties 5.8.1.1 General characteristic 5.8.1.2 Fatigue strength 5.8.2 Tribological properties 5.8.2.1 Types of basic tribological properties 5.8.2.2 Types of friction 5.8.2.3 Sliding friction 5.8.2.4 Rolling friction 5.8.2.5 The role of surface in the friction process 5.8.2.6 Thermal effects of friction 5.8.2.7 Lubrication 5.8.2.8 Tribological wear and its various versions 5.8.2.9 Factors affecting tribological wear 5.8.2.10 Non-wear friction (selective carryover) 5.8.2.11 Limiting tribological wear 5.8.3 Anti-corrosion properties 5.8.4 Decorative properties 5.9 The significance of the superficial layer References 6. Coatings 6.1 The concept of the coatings 6.2 Structure of the coating 6.3 Types of coatings 6.3.1 Division of coatings by material 6.3.1.1 Metallic coatings 6.3.1.2 Non-metallic coatings 6.3.2 Classification of coatings by application 6.3.2.1 Protective coatings 6.3.2.2 Decorative coatings 6.3.2.3 Protective-decorative coatings 6.3.2.4 Technical coatings 6.3.3 Classification of coatings by manufacturing methods 6.3.3.1 Galvanizing 6.3.3.2 Immersion coatings 6.3.3.3 Spray coatings 6.3.3.4 Cladded coatings 6.3.3.5 Crystallizing coatings 6.4 Potential properties of coatings 6.4.1 Geometrical parameters of coatings 6.4.1.1 Thickness 6.4.1.2 Three-dimensional structure of the surface © 1999 by CRC Press LLC 6.4.1.3 Surface unevenness 6.4.1.4 Defects of the three-dimensional structure 6.4.2 Geometric and physico-chemical parameters of coatings 6.4.3 Physico-chemical parameters of coatings 6.4.3.1 General characteristic 6.4.3.2 Structure of metallic coatings 6.4.3.3 Residual stresses 6.4.3.4 Adhesion 6.4.3.5 Hardness 6.4.3.6 Ductility (elasticity) 6.4.3.7 Electrical properties 6.4.3.8 Magnetic properties 6.5 Service properties of coatings 6.5.1 Anti-corrosion properties 6.5.1.1 Types of corrosion 6.5.1.2 Corrosion resistance 6.5.1.3 Porosity 6.5.1.4 Bulging 6.5.1.5 Permeability 6.5.2 Decorative properties 6.5.2.1 External appearance 6.5.2.2 Color 6.5.2.3 Luster 6.5.2.4 Coverability 6.5.2.5 Specific decorative properties 6.6 Significance and directions of development of coatings References Part II. The newest techniques of producing surface layers 1. Formation of technological surface layers 1.1 Techniques of formation of technological surface layers 1.1.1 Mechanical techniques 1.1.2 Thermo-mechanical techniques 1.1.3 Thermal techniques 1.1.4 Thermo-chemical techniques 1.1.5 Electrochemical and chemical techniques © 1999 by CRC Press LLC 1.1.6 Physical techniques 1.2 Classification of techniques of producing technological surface layers References 2. Electron beam technology 2.1 Advent and development of electron beam technology 2.2 Physical principles underlying the functioning of electron beam equipment 2.2.1 Electron emission 2.2.2 Thermoelectron emission 2.2.3 Utilization of plasma as a source of electrons 2.2.4 Acceleration of electrons 2.2.5 Electron beam control 2.2.6Vacuum in electron equipment 2.3 Electron beam heaters 2.3.1 Electron guns 2.3.1.1 Thermal emission guns 2.3.1.2 Plasma emission guns 2.3.2 Design of electron beam heaters 2.3.3 Types of beams and patterns 2.4 Physical fundamentals of interaction of electron beam with treated material 2.4.1 Mechanism of interaction of electron beam with treated material 2.4.2 Efficiency of electron beam heating 2.4.3 Rate of heating and cooling 2.5 Electron beam techniques 2.5.1 Remelt-free techniques 2.5.1.1 Annealing and tempering 2.5.1.2 Remelt-free hardening 2.5.2 Remelt techniques 2.5.2.1 Surface remelting 2.5.2.2 Alloying 2.5.2.3 Cladding 2.5.3Evaporation techniques 2.5.4 Applications of electron beam heating in surface engineering References 3. Laser technology 3.1 Development of laser technology © 1999 by CRC Press LLC 3.2 Physical fundamentals of lasers 3.2.1 Spontaneous and stimulated emission 3.2.2 Laser action 3.2.2.1 Inversion of occupation of energy levels 3.2.2.2 Optical resonator 3.2.3 Single-mode and multi-mode laser beams 3.3 Lasers and laser heaters 3.3.1 General design of lasers 3.3.2Molecuar CO2 lasers 3.3.2.1 General characteristic 3.3.2.2 Lasers with slow longitudinal flow (diffusion cooled) 3.3.2.3 Lasers with fast longitudinal flow 3.3.2.4 Lasers with transverse flow 3.3.3Solid Nd-YAG lasers 3.3.4 Continuous and pulse laser operation 3.3.5 Laser heaters and machinetools 3.4 Physical fundamentals of laser heating 3.4.1 Properties of laser heating 3.4.2 The role surface absorption in laser heating 3.4.3 Depth of penetration of photons into the metal 3.4.4 Laser heating stages 3.4.5Temperature