The spatial distribution of pā in Tōtaranui/Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Arts, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Tristan Wadsworth i Abstract The distribution of pā sites in the central New Zealand region of Tōtaranui/Queen Charlotte Sound is investigated to determine the relationship between pā and other Māori archaeological sites, and the influence of maritime and introduced terrestrial resources. Particular aims of research are to investigate the role of visibility as a measure of defensibility in the distribution of Tōtaranui pā, and whether this distribution is influenced by the distribution of garden sites and karaka stands, two important introduced resources often considered to influence pā distribution at national levels. Additionally, evidence for gardening activity is ambiguous in Tōtaranui, for which there is a number of archaeologically recorded garden sites but a noted absence of gardening activity in the earliest historical records. Investigation into the distribution of pā is done by comparing proximity and intervisibility of pā sites to a range of Māori archaeological site types (garden sites, karaka stands, midden sites, oven sites, other pā sites, pit sites, and terrace sites). Proximity of pā to other archaeological sites is quantitatively measured by way of cost distance analysis, and intervisibility of sites measured by way of viewshed analysis within Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Cost distances and frequency of intervisibility of pā to other archaeological sites is recorded and compared against a dataset of random points. Based on the methodology used in the analysis, neither maritime nor introduced terrestrial resources had a significant influence on the distribution of Tōtaranui pā. A desire for high levels of visibility as a measure of defence was not found among these pā, as they did not have significantly larger viewsheds than random points. Pā were however, found to occupy spatially and visually central positions in Tōtaranui settlement systems, as cost distances from pā to other archaeological site types were significantly lower than cost distances from random points, and the frequency of intervisibility with other archaeological sites was higher among pā than among random points. Cost distance and viewshed analysis are shown to produce meaningful results in New Zealand archaeological contexts, and concerns are raised regarding the application of models based on distribution at national scales to individual regions, particularly those in areas considered marginal. Keywords: landscape archaeology, Geographic Information Systems, visibility, viewshed analysis, cost distance analysis, pā, Tōtaranui/Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand ii Acknowledgements This research would not have been possible without the supervision, advice, and mentorship provided by Dr Ian Barber and Dr Mark McCoy. Much of the data and technical support that this thesis required was provided by the University of Otago Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, and particular thanks must be given to Heather Sadler in this respect. I am forever indebted to the New Zealand archaeological community for providing data and advice and I would to thank Rick McGovern-Wilson and Nicola Molloy for providing access to ArchSite and answering my questions, and to regional filekeepers Steve Bagley and Reg Nichol for their knowledge of my study area. The Marlborough District Council provided a range of information and support during this thesis, and particular thanks need to be given to Val Wadsworth, Mike Eade and Pete Hammill. Thank you also to the always friendly iwi of Tōtaranui, particularly Judith MacDonald of Rangitane ki Wairau, and Sue Buchanan and Vanessa Eade of Te Ātiawa o Te-Waka-A-Maui. I am grateful to James Robinson and Moira Jackson for many interesting discussions and their support in matters of Geographical Information Systems, and letting me compare notes. Thanks to all those within the department who provided frank and interesting discussion on a range of topics, and I would like to thank all those within the department, particularly Alex Bell, Ben Teele, Kirsty Potts, and Chelsea Dickson for commenting on drafts of this work, and Chris Jennings, Andy Brown and Matt Carter for their sage wisdom. Thanks to all of my friends and family for their support, encouragement and patience. Chur. iii Contents Chapter 1 – Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Regional variation and the importance of local studies in New Zealand ....................... 3 1.2. Research aims and objectives ......................................................................................... 4 1.3. The organisation of this thesis ........................................................................................ 6 Chapter 2 – Settlement patterns and models of landscape use ............................................. 8 2.1. Settlement pattern and landscape archaeology ............................................................... 8 2.1. Potential settlement models for Tōtaranui pā ............................................................... 14 2.2. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 21 Chapter 3 – Tōtaranui/Queen Charlotte Sound: The study area .......................................... 22 3.1. The nature of social organisation in Tōtaranui ............................................................. 24 3.2. Subsistence behaviour in New Zealand and Tōtaranui ................................................ 33 3.3. Settlement in Tōtaranui ................................................................................................ 41 3.4. The distribution and role of pā in New Zealand settlement patterns ............................ 47 3.5. Summarizing the pattern of settlement in Tōtaranui .................................................... 49 Chapter 4 – Methodology .................................................................................................... 50 4.1. Baseline spatial data and Geographic Information Systems ........................................ 52 4.2. Measuring spatial relationships in Tōtaranui................................................................ 61 4.3. Visibility and pā ........................................................................................................... 65 4.4. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 69 Chapter 5 – Results .............................................................................................................. 70 5.1. Cost distance results ..................................................................................................... 70 5.2. Results of viewshed analysis ........................................................................................ 75 5.3. Summary of results ....................................................................................................... 83 Chapter 6 – Discussion ........................................................................................................ 84 6.1. Addressing questions of settlement in Tōtaranui ......................................................... 84 6.2. Assessing potential models of settlement in relation to terrestrial and maritime aspects of landscape ......................................................................................................................... 86 6.3. The distribution of pā within Tōtaranui systems of settlement .................................... 91 6.4. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 95 Chapter 7 – Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 96 7.1. Future research directions ............................................................................................. 97 iv 7.2. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 98 References ........................................................................................................................... 99 Appendix A: The pā of Tōtaranui* ................................................................................... 112 Appendix B: Horticultural sites of Tōtaranui* .................................................................. 143 Appendix C: Metadata ....................................................................................................... 152 v List of Figures Figure 1-1: Tōtaranui's location in the north of New Zealand's South Island ....................... 2 Figure 1-2: The modern landscape of Tōtaranui ................................................................... 2 Figure 2-1: Distribution of New Zealand pā and the approximate limit of kūmara horticulture .......................................................................................................................... 16 Figure 3-1: Tōtaranui, with place names mentioned in the text .......................................... 23 Figure 3-2: The later sequence of occupation in Tōtaranui (based on information from Elvy 1957; O’Regan 1987; Mitchell and Mitchell 2004) ...........................................................