University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" University of Naples Federico II PhD in Human Mind and Gender Studies, XXIX Cycle PhD Thesis Scientific Disciplinary Sector M-PSI/05 TITLE Implementation and evaluation of an intervention program aimed at cyberbullying and cybervictimization prevention: Combining the ecological system theory and the threat assessment approach Candidate Supervisor Anna Sorrentino Anna Costanza Baldry PhD Coordinator Maura Striano TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... IV LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... V Chapter 1: Cyberbullying ....................................................................................................................... VII 1.1 Defining cyberbullying: still an open debate ......................................................................... VII 1.2 Measuring cyberbullying ....................................................................................................... XII 1.3 Prevalence of Cyberbullying .................................................................................................. 18 1.4 The relationship between school bullying and cyberbullying ............................................... 30 Chapter 2: Cyberbullying in search of a theoretical model ................................................................... 42 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 42 2.2 The ecological system theory ................................................................................................ 43 2.3 The threat assessment approach .......................................................................................... 45 2.4 Combining the ecological system theory and the threat assessment approach to cyberbullying and cybervictimization ................................................................................................ 47 2.5 Risk factors for involvement in cyberbullying ....................................................................... 49 2.5.1 Individual level risk factors (‘ontogenetic’) ................................................................... 49 2.5.2 Interpersonal level risk factors (microsystem) .............................................................. 52 2.5.3 Community level risk factors (mesosystem) ................................................................. 53 2.6 Risk factors for involvement in cybervictimization ............................................................... 59 2.6.1 Individual level risk factors (‘ontogenetic’) .......................................................................... 59 2.6.2 Interpersonal level risk factors (microsystem) ..................................................................... 63 2.6.3 Community level risk factors (mesosystem) ........................................................................ 65 2.7 Cyberbullying prevention and intervention programs: an owerview ................................... 72 Chapter 3: .............................................................................................................................................. 79 3.1 Study 1:Psychometric proprieties of the Tabby Checklist ..................................................... 79 3.2 Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 79 3.3 Objective................................................................................................................................ 79 3.4 Method .................................................................................................................................. 79 3.4.1 Participants .................................................................................................................... 79 3.4.2 Measure: The Tabby Improved Checklist ...................................................................... 80 3.4.3 Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 85 3.5 Results ................................................................................................................................... 86 3.5.1 Explorative Factor Analysis ............................................................................................ 86 3.5.2 Reliability: Internal Consistency and Test–Retest Reliability ........................................ 91 3.5.3 Convergent and Divergent Validity: Profiles of Cybervictims and Cyberbullies ............ 91 3.5.4 Predictive power of the Tabby Improved Checklist ...................................................... 94 3.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 95 3.7 Study 2: Risk factors for students involvement in cyberbullying and cybervictimization: onset and persistency ....................................................................................................................... 98 3.8 Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 98 3.9 Aim......................................................................................................................................... 98 3.10 Method .................................................................................................................................. 99 3.10.1 Participants .................................................................................................................... 99 3.10.2 Measures ....................................................................................................................... 99 3.10.3 Procedure .................................................................................................................... 100 3.11 Results ................................................................................................................................. 100 3.11.1 Onset risk factors for cyberbullying involvement ....................................................... 100 3.11.2 Onset risk factors for cybervictimization..................................................................... 103 3.11.3 Persistency of Risk factors for cyberbullying ............................................................... 106 3.11.4 Persistency risk factors for cybervictimization ............................................................ 109 3.12 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 111 3.13 Study 3: evaluating the effectiveness of the Tabby Imoprved prenvention and intervention program on cyberbullying and cybervictimization .......................................................................... 112 3.14 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 112 3.15 Aims and hypothesis............................................................................................................ 112 3.16 The Tabby Improved prevention and intervention program .............................................. 113 3.17 Design and Procedure ......................................................................................................... 116 3.18 Method ................................................................................................................................ 119 3.18.1 Participants .................................................................................................................. 119 3.18.2 Measure ....................................................................................................................... 120 3.18.3 Preliminar analysis ....................................................................................................... 121 3.19 Results ................................................................................................................................. 122 3.19.1 Awareness of online risk behaviors as mediator ......................................................... 124 3.20 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 125 Overall discussion ............................................................................................................................ 126 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Psychometric characteristics of cyberbullying measurement instruments ............................ 15 Table 2. Studies on cyberbullying and prevalence rates ....................................................................... 22 Table 3: Cyberbullying and cybervictimization cross-national/cross-cultural comparisons ................. 27 Table 4: Percentages of involvement in school and cyberbullying across studies. ............................... 32 Table 5. Overlap between cyberbullying and school bullying categories. ............................................ 34 Table 6. Summary of risk factors for cyberbullying according to the ecological framework’s levels ... 54 Table 7 Summary of risk factors