sustainability Review Organic versus Conventional Cropping Sustainability: A Comparative System Analysis Tiffany L. Fess ID and Vagner A. Benedito * ID Division of Plant & Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, P.O. Box 6108, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 11 December 2017; Accepted: 16 January 2018; Published: 21 January 2018 Abstract: We are at a pivotal time in human history, as the agricultural sector undergoes consolidation coupled with increasing energy costs in the context of declining resource availability. Although organic systems are often thought of as more sustainable than conventional operations, the lack of concise and widely accepted means to measure sustainability makes coming to an agreement on this issue quite challenging. However, an accurate assessment of sustainability can be reached by dissecting the scientific underpinnings of opposing production practices and crop output between cropping systems. The purpose of this review is to provide an in-depth and comprehensive evaluation of modern global production practices and economics of organic cropping systems, as well as assess the sustainability of organic production practices through the clarification of information and analysis of recent research. Additionally, this review addresses areas where improvements can be made to help meet the needs of future organic producers, including organic-focused breeding programs and necessity of coming to a unified global stance on plant breeding technologies. By identifying management strategies that utilize practices with long-term environmental and resource efficiencies, a concerted global effort could guide the adoption of organic agriculture as a sustainable food production system. Keywords: agricultural ecology; energy use efficiency; natural resources; organic breeding; pesticides; soil conservation; sustainable development 1. Introduction 1.1. The Definition and State of Global Organic Production Organic crop production is practiced throughout the world, but the official definition and requirements vary country to country (Figure1). In the United States, the definition of “organic” provided through the government regulated U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Organic Program (NOP) is not simple, but a rather lengthy and detailed description of all aspects associated with the production, handling, processing, and labeling of organic products, which are strictly enforced. In short, the NOP defines organic agriculture as “an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony”. It should be noted that the standards set by each individual country reflect the needs and resources of the local agricultural environment and consumer. Therefore, some variation does exist. Internationally, organic agriculture is regulated and enforced by numerous certifying agencies based, in large part, on standards set by the International Foundation for Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). Generally speaking, standards set in all countries largely prohibit synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, and instead put heavy reliance on biodiversity, natural pathogen and pest controls, as well as crop rotations to maintain soil fertility, enhance system sustainability, and reduce environmental Sustainability 2018, 10, 272; doi:10.3390/su10010272 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability SustainabilitySustainability2018 2018, ,10 10,, 272 272 2 2of of 38 42 biodiversity, natural pathogen and pest controls, as well as crop rotations to maintain soil fertility, enhance impact. Additionally, the use of material legally defined as a genetically modified organism (GMO) is system sustainability, and reduce environmental impact. Additionally, the use of material legally defined strictly prohibited. as a genetically modified organism (GMO) is strictly prohibited. Figure 1. Regulation and implementation of organic practices by country. According to the most Figure 1. Regulation and implementation of organic practices by country. According to the most recent recent data from the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), organic agriculture is being data from the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), organic agriculture is being practiced to practiced to some degree in almost all countries [1]. Map created using mapchart.net. some degree in almost all countries [1]. Map created using mapchart.net. According to the most recent Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) data (2015), there are 179According diverse organic to the mostproducing recent countries Research in the Institute world ofcombining Organic 50.9 Agriculture million hectares (FiBL) of data farmland (2015), therededicated are 179 to diverseorganic organicproduction, producing an area countries roughly the in thetotal world size of combining Spain (Figure 50.9 2) million [1]. In hectares 2015, the of farmlandlargest number dedicated of organic to organic producers production, worldwide an was area recorded, roughly thetotaling total 2.4 size million, of Spain of which (Figure 89%2)[ are1 ]. Infrom 2015, developing the largest countriesnumber and of emerging organic producers markets (Figur worldwidee 3). The wasmost recorded, recent statistics totaling also 2.4 show million, that ofglobal which sales 89% ofare organic from developingfood and drinks countries are estimated and emerging to have markets reached (Figure 81.6 3billion). The USD most (Figures recent statistics 4 and also5) [1]. show Presently, that global organic sales agriculture of organic foodand andrelat drinksed businesses are estimated are growing to have within reached the81.6 U.S. billion market,USD (Figuresserving4 asand a 5strong)[ 1]. Presently,stimulus for organic the USDA’s agriculture goals and for related rural businessesdevelopment are growingand promotion within theof U.S.agricultural market, servingsustainability. as a strong Over stimulusthe last 30 for years, the USDA’sU.S. organic goals production for rural development has grown at anda steady promotion pace, ofstarting agricultural from sustainability.virtually nothing Over and the growing last 30 years, to currently U.S. organic include production over 14,800 has registered grown at afarms, steady pace,managing starting approximately from virtually 2.0 nothing million andhectares growing (4.9 million to currently acres; include 0.6% total over land 14,800 share) registered of farmland, farms, managingwith certifiable approximately organic operations 2.0 million found hectares in every (4.9 state million [1]. Even acres; though 0.6% totalthe amount land share) of land of dedicated farmland, withto the certifiable production organic of organic operations good founds is low in in every comparison state [1]. to Even its conventional though the amount counterpart, of land consumer dedicated todemand the production is high. Overall, of organic the goods U.S. organic is low in market comparison reached to its39.7 conventional billion USD counterpart,in retail sales consumer in 2015 demand(representing is high. 47% Overall, of the global the U.S. orga organicnic market), market accounting reached for 39.7 nearly billion 5% USDof all infood retail sales sales in the in U.S. 2015 (representing[2]. According 47% to surveys of the global collected organic by the market), USDA, accountingeven though for the nearly retail 5%price of of all organic food sales products in the U.S.continues [2]. According to be higher to surveys than their collected conventional by the USDA, counterparts, even though more theorganic retail producers price of organic are needed products to continuesmeet the demand to be higher of the than U.S. their market, conventional especially counterparts,for fresh produce more and organic dairy. producers are needed to meet the demand of the U.S. market, especially for fresh produce and dairy. Sustainability 2018, 10, 272 3 of 38 Sustainability 2018, 10, 272 3 of 42 Sustainability 2018, 10, 272 3 of 38 Figure 2. Proportion of organic land share, per country, as of 2015. Currently, 1.1% of the global Figure 2. Proportion of organic land share, per country, as of 2015. Currently, 1.1% of the global Figure 2. Proportion of organic land share, per country, as of 2015. Currently, 1.1% of the global agriculturalagricultural area area is is dedicated dedicated toto organic cropcrop prod production.uction. Data Data retrieved retrieved from from Research Research Institute Institute of of agricultural area is dedicated to organic crop production. Data retrieved from Research Institute OrganicOrganic Agriculture Agriculture (FiBL)(FiBL) andand International FederationFederation of ofOrganic Organic Agriculture Agriculture Movements Movements of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)-Organic(IFOAM)-Organic International International WorldWorld ofof OrganicOrganic Agriculture Agriculture Yearbook Yearbook 2017 2017 [1]. [1].Map Map created created using using (IFOAM)-Organic International World of Organic Agriculture Yearbook 2017 [1]. Map created using mapchart.net.mapchart.net. mapchart.net. Figure 3. Global growth in organic production. In response to increasing global consumer demand, the land area and number of producers dedicated to the cultivation of organic goods has steadily FigureFigure 3. 3. GlobalGlobal