ON BEING CHARISMATIC BRETHREN: ROOTS AND SHOOTS OF PENTECOSTAL EVANGELICALISM IN TANZANIA by ALLAN SMITH McKINNON A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Centre for Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies Department of Theology and Religion University of Birmingham December 2017 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT Pentecostal and charismatic expressions of Christian faith among Christian Brethren churches of northern Tanzania are the focus of this study. By tracing the historical developments of the Open Brethren and Pentecostal Movements, the work highlights similarities and distinctives which continue in the present to shape a new rising African Christianity that has been defined as ‘pentecostal evangelicalism’. Historical origins in mission endeavour shed light on the indigenous development of these Charismatic Brethren and Pentecostal Evangelicals. This new expression of faith is shown to be well adjusted to an African religious and cultural milieu in the given Tanzanian context. It is not denominationally situated but rather bears the marks of revivalist movements. The study incorporates an analysis of opinions expressed by Tanzanians through use of a Q Method survey and thereby attempts to define ‘pentecostal evangelicalism’. The thesis concludes by pointing to shema and shalom as theological nodes which describe these charismatic Brethren and suggests their understanding may have value beyond the shores of the African continent. i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work would not have happened without the prompting and supervision of Allan H. Anderson, Professor of Mission and Pentecostal Studies, to whom I am greatly indebted – he has proven to be a steady guide and thoroughly informed mentor in the whole process. Dr. Wolfgang Vondey, as Director of the Centre for Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies, has often stimulated and challenged my thinking through personal meetings and post-graduate seminars as we interacted with other CPCS students. Dr. Stephen Jeffares, also of the University of Birmingham, has been a help in learning Q Method. The staff at Tilsley College, Motherwell, have been most generous in accommodating my studies, not only in regular absences for (‘holiday’) trips to Birmingham, but in an extended sabbatical (‘holiday’) in early 2017. Mr Simon Marshall (Principal) and Dr Stephen McQuoid (GLO General Director) have often been an encouragement to me. My inquisitive students cause me to keep on wanting to learn. Tanzanian brothers and sisters in Christ have been delightful informants to my study. Their lives, relayed in stories, opinions, vibrant faith in Christ and godly living, have been the foundational material for the study – without them this work would never have been possible. Representative of many others, I especially thank Legius Nchimbi (Principal at Berea Bible College), Bernardi Elly (Lecturer at BBC), and George Nkurunziza (Pastor at Ulyankulu). Finally, I want to pay tribute to my wife, Jacqui, who has truly loved me through 37 years of marriage. Over these last four years of study her selfless support has blessed me. “There are many virtuous and capable women in the world, but you surpass them all!” (Proverbs 31.29) Thank you! I dedicate this work to my six grandchildren: Miriam, Ethan, Keira, Abigail, Elijah and Nathan. May each of you personally experience the joy of knowing the Giver and the gifts of the Spirit. Shalom! (Deuteronomy 6.4-9.) Veni Sancte Spiritus ii ABBREVIATIONS AoG Assemblies of God AEE Africa Evangelistic Enterprises ATR African Traditional Religion(s) BAHN Brethren Archivists and Historians Network BBC Berea Bible College (Moshi) CAC Catholic Apostolic Church CBR Christian Brethren Review CIM China Inland Mission CfAN Christ for All Nations CMML Christian Missions in Many Lands CMML(T) Christian Mission in Many Lands (Tanzania) CMS Church Missionary Society EA East Africa EAGT Evangelical Assemblies of God Tanzania ELCT Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania EMS Evangelical Mission Society ESV English Standard Version EQ The Evangelical Quarterly FA Factor Array (a technical element of QM) HGF Holy Ghost Fathers INKWO Injili Kwa Wote (The Gospel for All) JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society KLB Kanisa la Biblia (Lit. translated, Church of the Bible; Brethren Assembly) LMS London Missionary Society NHS National Health Service NIV New International Version NGO Non-Government Organisation PA Public Address systems PAOC Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada PEFA Pentecostal Evangelistic Fellowship of Africa PHC Pentecostal Holiness Church PHM Pentecostal Holiness Mission PMU Pentecostal Missionary Union PQM Program Q-Method (software package) QM ‘Q’ Methodology RC Roman Catholic TAG Tanzania Assemblies of God UK United Kingdom USA United States of America iii LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Page Figure 1.1 Map of Tanzania showing key political regional boundaries and major towns and cities 10 Figure 3.1 Locations of sites of Arab colonial influence in Tanzania 69 Figure 3.2 Missionary Giersch in a rickshaw ca. 1906 80 Figure 3.3 Missionaries at coffee table ca. 1903 80 Figure 3.4 Rest house for Europeans nr. Igale 82 Figure 3.5 Map showing some Swedish Free Mission station locations around Tabora/Shinyanga districts, c. 1960. 89 Figure 3.6 Distribution of southern KLB churches ca. 1997 110 Figure 3.7 Relative locations of Bukoba and outlying KLB church locations 117 Table 5.1 Tanzania Population Pyramid 2018-05-06 172 Table 5.2 Demographic of participants for the Q-Sort exercises 173 Table 5.3 Pro-forma for recording the Q-Sort of participants 175 Table 5.4 Factor Defining Q-Sorts for the Three Study Factors 179 Table 5.5 Factor Correlations for the Three Study Factors 180 Figure 5.6 Modelling Charismatic Brethren on a range of congruence between Brethren and Pentecostal theologies 218 Table 7.1 Steven J. Land’s ‘Pentecostal Spirituality’ 264 Figure 7.2 Framework used to assess alignment of ‘pentecostal evangelicalism’ with Tanzanian thinking 295 Table 8.1 Goal, Means & Outlook of Tanzanian Charismatic & British Brethren Christianity 298 Figure 8.2 The Rise and Fall Pattern of Jesus-movements (Alan Hirsch) 304 iv LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A List of statements used in QM Appendix B Completed sample Pro-forma for recording Q-Sort Appendix C Table of Z Scores arising from Q-Sorts Appendix D Factor Array 1 Crib Sheet (Pragmatic Experimentalist Brethren) Appendix E Factor Array 2 Crib Sheet (Cautious Brethren) Appendix F Factor Array 3 Crib Sheet (Pentecostal Evangelical Brethren) Appendix G Combined Factor Array and Defining Q-Sorts Appendix H Geographical Comparison of Responses to Q Sort Statements v TABLE OF CONTENTS On Being Charismatic Brethren: Roots and Shoots of Pentecostal Evangelicalism in Tanzania Abstract i Acknowledgments ii Abbreviations iii List of Figures and Tables iv List of Appendices v Table of Contents vi 1. Introduction: Setting the Study in its Context 1 1.1 Visiting Brethren Assemblies in Northern Tanzania 1 1.1.1. “Is this really a Brethren Assembly?” 1 1.1.2. “Is this really Tanzania?” 3 1.1.3. The ‘show’ must go on 4 1.2. Seeking an Explanation of Brethren Assemblies in Northern Tanzania 6 2. Pursuing Primitive Christianity: Two Late Church Movements 11 2.1. Tracing the Ancestry of Christians called “Brethren” and “Pentecostals” 11 2.1.1. Anabaptism – a Common Heritage 13 2.1.2. Pietism and the Puritans – a Shared Passion 15 2.1.3. Evangelicalism – a Mutual Conviction 17 2.2. The Brethren – A Radical Movement of its Day 21 2.2.1. A Spirit-led Eschatological Movement 24 2.2.2. A Diverse Movement in Membership 35 2.2.3. A Missionary Movement in the World 37 2.2.4. An Influential Movement in the Church 40 2.2.4.1. Charismatic Developments Among Brethren 46 2.2.4.2. Charismatic Backlash Among Brethren 50 2.3. The Pentecostals – Growth, Development and Alignments 54 2.3.1. Their Raison d’Etre 54 2.3.2. A Shared Biblicism 56 2.3.3. The Signs of the Times 57 2.3.4. Their Spontaneous Expansion 59 2.3.5. Ecclesiology and Practice 61 2.3.6. Other Identifiers… 64 2.4 Pursuing the Final Restoration 66 2.5. Conclusion 67 3. Obeying the Great Commission: Two Late Arrivals in Tanzania 69 3.1. Setting the Historical Context 69 3.2. Earliest Pioneers and their Missions 71 3.3. Here Come the Pentecostals 85 3.4. The East African Revival and the Charismatic Movement in Tanzania 94 3.5. The Brethren Arrive in Tanzania 107 3.5.1. The Germans (South) 109 3.5.2. The British (North) 114 3.5.3. The ‘Evangelists’ 120 3.5.4. Shaping Influences on Indigenous Expressions 121 vi 3.5.5. Persistent Roots and Shoots 122 3.6. Conclusion 125 4. The Crucible of Context: Tanzanian Cultures, Subcultures and the Undercurrents of African Traditional Religion(s) 127 4.1. Always Learning Culture 127 4.2 Ethnographic Survey 128 4.2.1 The Researcher and his Limitations 128 4.2.2 The Chosen Fields of Study 131 4.2.3 Moshi, Kilimanjaro 133 4.2.3.1 Geographical Location and Background Information 133 4.2.3.2 Ethnic Origins & Neighbours 135 4.2.3.3 Economy 135 4.2.3.4 Religious and Social Background 137 4.2.3.5 The cultural inheritance of Wachagga today 141 4.2.4 Ulyankulu, Tabora 144 4.2.4.1 Geographical Location and Information 144 4.2.4.2 Economy 146 4.2.4.3 Origins of the Watutsi 147 4.2.4.4 Religious background: the Watutsi, God and the Spirits 148 4.2.4.5 Peace and the Request for ‘Radhi’ 150 4.2.4.6 Musical Interests 152 4.2.4.7 Sickness, Disease and Death 153 4.2.4.8 The cultural inheritance of the Watutsi today 154 4.3.