Zurich Open Repository and Archive University of Zurich Main Library Strickhofstrasse 39 CH-8057 Zurich www.zora.uzh.ch Year: 2009 Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom: An Archaeological Perspective Sowada, Karin N. Abstract: This study presents a revised view of Egyptian foreign relations in the eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom (3rd-6th Dynasties) based on an extensive analysis of old and new archaeological data, and its relationship to the well-known textual sources. The material demonstrates that while Egypt’s most important relationships were with Byblos and the Lebanese coast generally, it was an active participant in the geo-political and economic affairs of the Levant throughout much of the third millennium BC. The archaeological data shows that the foundation of these relationships was established at the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period and essentially continued until the end of the 6th Dynasty with ebbs, flows and changes of geographical and political emphasis. It is argued that, despite thepaucity of textual data, the 4th Dynasty represents the apogee of Egypt’s engagement in the region, a time when the centralised state was at the height of its power and control of human and economic capital. More broadly, this study shows that Egyptian interaction in the eastern Mediterranean fits the pattern of state-to-state contact between ruling elites which was underpinned by official expeditions engaged in gift and commodity exchange, diplomatic endeavours and military incursions. Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-143040 Monograph Published Version Originally published at: Sowada, Karin N. (2009). Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom: An Archae- ological Perspective. Fribourg, Switzerland / Göttingen, Germany: Academic Press / Vandenhoeck Ruprecht. Sowada Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom ORBIS BIBLICUS ET ORIENTALIS Published on behalf of the BIBLE+ORIENT Foundation in co-operation with the Department of Biblical Studies, University of Fribourg (Switzerland), the Egyptological Institute, University of Basel, the Institute of Archaeology, Near Eastern section, University of Berne, the Institute of Biblical Research, University of Lausanne, the Department of Religious Studies, University of Zurich, and the Swiss Society for Ancient Near Eastern Studies by Susanne Bickel, Othmar Keel, Thomas C. Römer, Bernd U. Schipper and Christoph Uehlinger About the author Karin Sowada obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1989 with first dass honours in Archaeology from the University of Sydney, Australia. She gained a PhD from the same university in 2002 for a dissertation entitled 'Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom: a Re-appraisal of the Archaeological Evidence'. She has worked on archaeological projects in Jordan, Australia and Egypt, and in 1996, was Field Director for the Austra­ lian Centre for Egyptology's excavations at the Teti Pyramid cemetery at Saqqara. Sowada has published many books, articles and essays on topics ranging from Egyptian foreign relations, mummies, cemetery archaeology, sculpture and ceramics. From 1996 to 2005, she was Assistant Curator of the Nichol­ son Museum at the University of Sydney, during which time she curated a number of exhibitions and conducted extensive research on the Egyptian collection. This included the Mummy Research Project and work on the history of the collection and its key benefactor, Sir Charles Nicholson. Prior to this, she served as a Senator in the Commonwealth Parliament from 1991 to 1993. She is currently an Honorary Research Associate in the Department of An­ cient History at Macquarie University and the Department of Archaeology at the University of Sydney and lives at Bondi Beach, Sydney, with her hus­ band Armon Hicks and two children. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 237 Karin N. Sowada Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom An Archaeological Perspective With a contribution by Peter Grave Academic Press Fribourg Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Göttingen Publication subsidized by the Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences Internetgeneral catalogue: Academic Press Fribourg: www.paulusedition.ch Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen: www.v-r.de Camera-ready text submitted by the author © 2009 by Academic Press Fribourg, Fribourg Switzeriand Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Göttingen ISBN: 978-3-7278-1649-9 (Academic Press Fribourg) ISBN: 978-3-525-53455-7 (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht) ISSN: 1015-1850 (Orb. biblicus orient.) For Kate, Lily and Armon, with grateful thanks for their patience. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables and Charts xii List of Figures and Plates xiii Abbreviations xv Photographic and design credits xviii Foreword xix Abstract xxi CHAPTER 1 Studies in Old Kingdom foreign relations: a survey 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Defining the parameters of this study 2 1.3. Studies in Old Kingdom foreign relations 5 1.3.1. The problematic textual record 5 1.3.2. The primacy of the northern Levant 7 1.3.3. The position of Canaan 10 1.4. Research method, problems and priorities 16 1.4.1. Research method 16 1.4.2. Understanding the Egyptian archaeological repertoire 18 1.4.3. Identifying objects as Egyptian 19 1.4.4. The need for more micro-archaeology 22 1.5. Conclusion 23 CHAPTER 2 Patterns of Egyptian foreign relations in the Early Bronze Age I and II 2.1. Introduction 25 2.2. The Early Bronze Age I - Naqada IIB/IIIC1 25 2.3. The Early Bronze Age II - Early Dynastic Period 28 2.3.1. Egypt and southern Canaan at the end of the EB IB 29 2.3.2. Early Dynastic Egypt and the ‘foreign lands’ 30 2.3.3. The development of complex society in Canaan and the role of Egypt 33 2.3.4. Egyptian material in Canaan and the problem of identification 34 2.3.5. The case of Beth Yerah 36 2.3.6. Commodities imported into Egypt 37 2.3.7. Abydos Ware and its origins 39 2.3.8. The role of Arad 44 2.3.9. The Sinai, turquoise and copper 45 2.3.10. Egyptian stone vessel imports in the EB II 48 2.4. Conclusion 50 viii CHAPTER 3 A corpus of imported material in Egypt 3.1. Introduction 54 3.2. Kom el-Hisn 54 3.3. Giza 54 3.3.1. Ceramics 55 3.3.2. Raw materials 74 3.4. Abusir 76 3.5. Saqqara 80 3.6. Dashur 81 3.7. Meydum 82 3.8. Sedment 83 3.9. Deshasha 83 3.10. Matmar 83 3.11. Mostagedda 84 3.12. Qau el-Kebir 84 3.13. Ballas 84 3.14. Edfu 84 3.15. Elephantine 85 3.16. Unprovenanced 86 3.17. Conclusion 86 CHAPTER 4 A corpus of Egyptian imports in Canaan 4.1. Introduction 91 4.2. The Sinai 91 4.2.1. Archaeological sites 91 4.2.2. Inscriptions 91 4.2.3. Ceramics 92 4.3. Numeira 93 4.4. Bab edh-Dhra 94 4.4.1. Carnelian beads 94 4.4.2. Shell and other beads 94 4.4.3. Maceheads 95 4.4.4. Palettes 95 4.4.5. Cylinder seals 97 4.4.6. Pottery 98 4.4.7. Stone vessels and other stone objects 99 4.5. Tel Halif (Lahav) 100 4.5.1. Carnelian beads 100 4.5.2. Faience beads 100 4.5.3. Beads - other materials 101 4.5.4. Palettes 101 4.5.5. Stone vessels 102 4.6. Lachish 102 4.6.1. Beads 102 4.6.2. Stone vessels 103 ix 4.7. Tel Erani 103 4.7.1. Palettes 103 4.7.2. Stone vessels 103 4.8. Tel Yarmuth 104 4.8.1. Beads 104 4.8.2. Palettes 104 4.8.3. Stone vessels 105 4.8.4. Pottery 109 4.8.5. Raw materials 109 4.8.6. Architectural features 110 4.8.7. Discussion 110 4.9. Jericho 110 4.10. Ai (et-Tell) 111 4.10.1. Beads 111 4.10.2. Palettes 111 4.10.3. Stone vessels 111 4.10.4. Pottery 116 4.10.5. Other objects 116 4.10.6. Architectural features 118 4.10.7. Discussion 118 4.11. Gezer 119 4.12. Tel Ta’anach 119 4.13. Megiddo 119 4.13.1. Beads and amulets 119 4.13.2. Stone vessels 120 4.13.3. Architectural elements 120 4.14. Beth Shean 120 4.15. Tel Yoqneam 120 4.16. Yavne-Yam 120 4.17. Beth Yerah 121 4.17.1. Palettes 121 4.17.2. Architectural features 122 4.18. Conclusion 122 CHAPTER 5 A corpus of Egyptian imports in the northern Levant 5.1. Introduction 128 5.2. Adonis River 128 5.3. Byblos 128 5.3.1. Stone vessels 130 5.3.2. Stone vessels of uncertain Egyptian origin 136 5.3.3. Seals 137 5.3.4. Other objects 137 5.3.5. Architectural elements 138 5.3.6. Discussion 139 5.4. Ugarit (Ras Shamra) 141 5.5. Ebla (Tell Mardikh) 141 x 5.6. Hama 145 5.7. Alalakh (Tell Atchana) 146 5.8. Anatolia 146 5.9. Cyprus 146 5.10. The Cyclades 147 5.11. Crete 148 5.12. Conclusion 150 CHAPTER 6 Imported ceramics in Egypt and their origins 6.1. Introduction 154 6.2. Previous research on imported ceramics 154 6.3. Typological categories 155 6.3.1. Combed Ware (Type 1) 155 6.3.2. One-handled jugs and jars (Type 2) 158 6.4. Depictions of foreign pottery 158 6.5. Contents 160 6.6. Transport 162 6.7. Distribution 163 6.8. Seals, potters marks and other decorative elements 166 6.9. Provenance in the Levant 167 6.10. Fabric, ware types and the question of provenance 168 6.10.1.