ZSOMBOR RAJKAI • THE TIMURID EMPIRE A ND MING CHINA ZSOMBOR RAJKAI THE TIMURID EMPIRE AND MING CHINA: THEORIES AND APPROACHES CONCERNING THE RELATIONS OF THE TWO EMPIRES BUDAPEST MONOGRAPHS IN EAST ASIAN STUDIES SERIES EDITOR: IMRE HAMAR ZSOMBOR RAJKAI THE TIMURID EMPIRE AND MING CHINA: THEORIES AND APPROACHES CONCERNING THE RELATIONS OF THE TWO EMPIRES DEPARTMENT OF EAST ASIAN STUDIES, EÖTVÖS LORÁND UNIVERSITY BUDAPEST 2015 The present volume was published with the support of the Foundation for Hungarian Sinology. © Zsombor Rajkai, 2015 ISBN 978-963-284-731-3 ISSN 1787-7482 Responsible for the edition: Imre Hamar Cover illustration: © axz700/Shutterstock.com. (West tower of the Jiayuguan) CONTENTS Preface ...................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... ix Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER ONE TWO EMPIRES ON THE MORIBUND RUINS OF THE CHINGGISID DYNASTY .................... 11 1.1 The Timurid Empire ......................................................................................... 13 1.2 Ming China ....................................................................................................... 25 1.3 Historical contacts between the two empires .................................................... 39 1.4 Characteristics of the Timurid–Ming relationship ............................................ 46 1.5 Historical parallels and theoretical challenges .................................................. 50 CHAPTER TWO WESTERN RESEARCH ON TIMURID–MING RELATIONS ................................................ 55 2.1 Studies on the Chen Cheng accounts ................................................................ 57 2.2 Initial studies and the first theories related to the subject ................................. 68 2.2.1 Initial studies ........................................................................................ 68 2.2.2 The appearance of the tribute theory .................................................... 75 2.3 Critiques of the tribute theory ........................................................................... 85 2.4 Summary and general assessment ................................................................... 100 CHAPTER THREE JAPANESE RESEARCH ON TIMURID–MING RELATIONS ............................................... 105 3.1 Research on Central Asia and the Timurid dynasty ........................................ 106 3.1.1 Japanese research on Central Asia .................................................... 107 3.1.2 Research studies on the Timurid dynasty in Japan ............................. 110 3.2 Japanese studies on the Timurid–Ming relationship ....................................... 113 3.3 Japanese research on Chinese and Timurid envoys ........................................ 120 3.3.1 Two studies about Chen Cheng .......................................................... 120 3.3.2 Two studies about the Naqq āsh account ............................................. 123 3.3.3 Fu An’s missions to Central Asia........................................................ 127 3.4 The relationship of the Chinggisid and Timurid dynasties ............................. 129 3.5 Summary and general assessment ................................................................... 132 CONTENTS CHAPTER FOUR CHINESE RESEARCH ON TIMURID–MING RELATIONS ................................................ 135 4.1 Studies on the Chen Cheng accounts and Chen Cheng’s life .......................... 137 4.2 Chinese studies on Timurid–Ming contacts .................................................... 145 4.3 Summary and general assessment ................................................................... 161 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 165 5.1 Theories and approaches ................................................................................. 165 5.2 Ideologies and realities of frontiers and boundaries ........................................ 169 5.3 Future trends ................................................................................................... 175 Appendix I. Classical Chinese Sources ................................................................... 177 Appendix II. Thematic Table ................................................................................... 181 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 185 Index ........................................................................................................................ 199 PREFACE A comparative study of the historical relations of the Timurid Empire (1370–1506) and Ming China (1368–1644) forms the subject-matter of the present book. Although they were not adjacent empires, the relationship between the two dynasties shows certain particularities that deserve special attention not only within the scholarship of Sino–Central Asian historical contacts, but also for the understanding of the formation of pre-modern inter-state and intercultural relations in a non-Western context. Nonetheless, this book, slightly unconventionally, is not based on a detailed analysis of primary sources, but instead, looks at modern international research on Sino–Central Asian relations through taking a comparative look at theories and approaches found in the secondary liter- ature. The reason for this approach is that, while numerous research stud- ies have produced valuable findings using primary sources, very little has been done to compare and analyse theory building per se concerning Si- no–Central Asian relations. To fill this gap, this book, employing theory (building) and approach as its main analytical aspects, compares West- ern, Japanese and Chinese studies on early Timurid–Ming contacts and stresses the applicability of these studies to a broader historical context. While aiming to promote the development of similar comparative studies in the future, this book also points to the problematic relationship of cul- tural ideologies and political realities with regard to frontiers and bounda- ries in the East and Central Asian context. As is demonstrated in the final chapter, further research on early fifteenth-century Sino–Central Asian relations has much to contribute to our understanding of the nature of frontiers and boundaries on China’s margins, not just in a geographical sense, but also in regard to the formation of inter-state and intercultural relations. The remarkable historical relationship of the two empires has aroused early scholarly interest amongst Western, Chinese and Japanese academic circles. Most of these studies discuss the two empires from ‘macro-level’ perspectives, such as diplomatic relations, though the subject also has great potential for studies from ‘micro-level’ (cultural anthropological) perspectives, focusing on the lives of and interactions between (semi-) vii PREFACE nomadic peoples and Chinese officials and commoners. Nonetheless, it must be noted that hitherto micro-level perspectives have been less utilised than macro-level ones. Among other things, the common historical experience of the Chinggisid Empire in Ming China and the newly emerging Timurid Empire in the late fourteenth century gives a useful analytical framework for comparative studies. In both cases, the Chinggisid heritage functioned as a sort of overall ‘shadow’ of the past – even though in the case of Ming China its historical influence did not last for more than about half a century. As is demonstrated in this book, the relationship of the two empires occupies a unique place in the history of Sino–Central Asian relations. This uniqueness is well expressed in Ralph Kauz’s opinion (2005), in pointing to a possible political constellation of the two regions during the early fifteenth century – even though this constellation was never realised. Furthermore, interestingly, the study of the relationship of China and Central Asia six hundred years ago may be important not only for historians, but also for researchers of current Sino–Central Asian conditions. In recent years China’s attention has turned to Central Asia again, attempting to create friendly relationship with the countries there. This active political effort by contemporary China may have promoted modern Chinese research on fifteenth-century Sino–Central Asian conditions, seeking the roots of a ‘traditionally friendly’ relationship between the two regions. Last but not least, the present book, in discussing various theories and approaches, displays numerous Arabic, Persian, Turkic, Mongolian, Chinese and Japanese words, titles and personal names. As for Arabic, Persian, Turkic and Mongolian names the transcription systems provided by Beatrice F. Manz (1989) are employed, 1 whereas for Chinese names the Hanyu Pinyin phonetic system is used, and for Japanese names the Revised Hepburn system of romanisation is utilised. Furthermore, the original characters for Chinese and Japanese expressions and personal names are also provided at their first appearance. 2 Finally, it must be noted that the order of Chinese and Japanese personal names is displayed in the original name order, that is, with the family