1 BLACK, Eugene Robert, third President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) or World Bank (since 1956 World Bank Group) 1949-1962, was born 1 May 1898 in Atlanta, Georgia, and passed away 20 February 1992 in Southampton, Long Island, New York, United States. He was the son of Eugene Robert Black, lawyer and banker, and Gussie King Grady, homemaker. On 8 June 1918 he married EliZabeth ‘Dolly’ Blalock. They had one daughter and one son (also named Eugene Robert). After her death on 2 April 1928 he married Susette Heath on 25 January 1930. They had one son. Source: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/EXTARCHIVES/ 0,,contentMDK:20487078~pagePK:36726~piPK:437378~theSitePK:29506,00.html On film (21 April 1952): www.archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.95750 Black was born into a family that was both wealthy and well-connected. His father, who was a lawyer and banker, became Governor of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta and later briefly Chair of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors (1933-1934). His mother was the daughter of Henry Woodfin Grady, a famous journalist, orator and spokesperson for the New South. In 1918 Black graduated cum laude from the University of Georgia, where he majored in Latin. He served briefly as an ensign in the United States (US) Navy in the First World War, summing up that period of his life as: ‘I was the seasickest ensign who ever went to sea’ (Black Named 1965: 54). Following the war he joined the Atlanta office of Harris, Forbes & Co., a New York investment firm. When the firm was reorganized as Chase-Harris-Forbes Corporation, he became the district manager for Atlanta. He rose to be Assistant Vice-President in 1933, just before the company fell victim to the depression. That same year he joined Chase National Bank of New York as second vice-president. He moved from the Atlanta office to New York City in 1934. There he gained a reputation as an expert on the bond market. In 1936 he was offered the position of Under Secretary of the US Treasury, but opted to stay with Chase National, where he was promoted to Senior Vice-President in 1937. During the latter part of the Second World War, Black became increasingly involved with Chase’s international dealings. After the war, while in Europe Black heard rumors about John McCloy being appointed as second president of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank in short). Upon his return to the US, he met with McCloy about Europe’s needs and urged him to accept the post. McCloy made his nomination as President of the World Bank contingent on Black being appointed as US Executive Director. US President Harry S Truman concurred IO BIO, Biographical Dictionary of Secretaries-General of International Organizations, www.ru.nl/fm/iobio 2 and appointed Black to the post in February 1947. Black was just what the World Bank in Washington DC needed at that time: he was very effective in marketing the Bank’s bonds. McCloy also came to rely heavily on him for advice and support; thus, while McCloy did not get his wish to have Black formally appointed as a member of his staff and as the US Executive Director, it happened informally (Kraske 1996: 49 and 51). Black spent a lot of time lobbying members of the US Congress and state assemblies to pass the requisite laws so the World Bank could fundraise in the US. In May 1949 McCloy resigned as World Bank President to become US High Commissioner for Germany. Black was McCloy’s choice to be his successor. After initially resisting the position, as he wanted his career to be with Chase, Black relented and allowed Truman to nominate him. He was elected and took office effective 1 July 1949. Subsequently he said that he found that there was more ‘inner satisfaction’ in being President of the World Bank than making money (Kraske 1996: 77). Not surprisingly, the transfer of the Bank leadership from McCloy to Black was relatively seamless. Black preserved the authority of the World Bank presidency while improving the relationship between the Bank President and its Board of Directors. His way of ensuring that things went smoothly in the Board was to consult very widely ahead of time and often informally with those directors relevant to the passage of whatever he had in mind. His principal achievement, however, was the establishment of the Bank’s credit and its reputation for probity and strict standards. During Black’s tenure as President, the World Bank developed the concept of the project loan, which permitted it to meet private market tests of sound finance. This allowed Black to sell Bank bonds, for the first time, outside the US. He began with the United Kingdom and Switzerland, even though Switzerland was not a World Bank member. He did this in part because Swiss francs were fully convertible and he kept emphasizing that the Bank had to be more than a ‘dollar bank’. But he also did it because he wanted to lend Swiss francs to Yugoslavia, knowing it would be easier for Yugoslavia to repay Swiss francs than US dollars (Oliver 1995: 42). Black’s negotiation of a loan to Yugoslavia is particularly revealing. He personally negotiated the loan with Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito. Black’s attitude toward borrowers was ‘less standoffish than that of his predecessors; he wanted an intimate banker-client relationship with member countries’ (Mason and Asher 1973: 96-97). Because he wanted Titoism to succeed, he even waived the condition that a borrower had to settle arrears before getting a loan. Thus the loan to Yugoslavia was a rare deviation from Black’s strong commitment to only making loans using economic rationality and those that could stand up to the market, which he contended had allowed the Bank to be independent and impartial (Le Prestre 1989: 142-143). Because of this deviation Black actually would have preferred that Tito rejected the offer. Black was outspoken in his criticism of bilateral aid because he believed that while the Bank could impose certain conditions, if the US (or some other country) insisted upon the same requirements it would be damned for interfering in the internal affairs of the recipient country. Brazil, Guatemala, Indonesia and a proposed loan to the British Colonial Development Corporation were instances where the conditions Black imposed led to significant criticism: ‘At home and abroad, Mr. Black benefited from an acute mind, an engaging Southern drawl and a lack of vanity. He also brought a bluntness that disabused heads of state and finance ministers of any notion that he was an international Santa Claus’ (Eugene R. Black 1992). Black frequently argued that bilateral aid inevitably involved using political rather than economic criteria in deciding what countries would receive loans and grants (Kilpatrick 1962). In spite of this perspective, there is some evidence that ‘Black’s Bank’ rushed or relaxed conditions on loans to Iraq, Iran and Iceland because of encouragement and pressure from the Bank’s key constituents, namely the United Kingdom and the US (Kapur et al. 1997: 104-105). The World Bank’s focus on economic development began under Black, in part because there was not any more lending for reconstruction to be done, once the Marshall or European IO BIO, Biographical Dictionary of Secretaries-General of International Organizations, www.ru.nl/fm/iobio 3 Recovery Plan (1948-1952) had come into being. To assist in this endeavor, he enthusiastically supported the establishment of a body that could do both research and training, what evolved into the Economic Development Institute. Moreover, with the addition of the International Finance Corporation (IFC, established in 1956) and the International Development Association (IDA, established in 1960), as Bank affiliates, the World Bank during Black’s presidency became the World Bank Group. While the idea of the IFC was actually suggested by Robert L. Garner and supported by his Assistant Richard Demuth and supported by McCloy before Black took over as President, he pursued the idea in spite of opposition by the US government and even within the Bank. Black’s support of the IDA was a fundamental shift for him from the early 1950s when he had been dead set against the idea of multilateral programs that would make concessional capital transfers (grants or loans) at softer than market terms to poor countries (Kapur et al. 1997: 12). His shift was in no small part because he wanted to undermine the support for the Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development (SUNFED). He believed that if there had to be a soft loan window, it was better that it be attached to the World Bank, where rich countries had more control due to weighted voting, than to the United Nations Secretariat (Van de Laar 1980: 57). When asked in 1961, if the Bank would be more successful if it were the only lending institution for economically less developed countries, Black replied: ‘Yes, Yes, I think so. The strength of the World Bank is our ability to speak frankly to those countries and to insist upon their carrying out their policies’ (Oliver 1995: 43). As a consequence, as Bank President he opposed the establishment of regional development banks, whether in Asia, Africa or Latin America. He also believed that the International Monetary Fund (IMF), under the leadership of Per Jacobsson, was not sufficiently stringent in its conditions for making funds available to member states, as exemplified in its dealings with Colombia.