QUANTITATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS QUANTITATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS Kultar Singh Copyright © Kultar Singh, 2007 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. First published in 2007 by Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd B1/I1, Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road New Delhi 110 044 www.sagepub.in Sage Publications Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 Sage Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP Sage Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd 33 Pekin Street #02-01 Far East Square Singapore 048763 Published by Vivek Mehra for Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd, typeset in 10.5/12.5 Aldine 401 BT by Star Compugraphics Private Limited, Delhi and printed at Chaman Enterprises, New Delhi. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Singh, Kultar, 1976– Quantitative social research methods/Kultar Singh. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Social sciences—Research—Methodology. I. Title. H62.S47757 300.72—dc22 2007 2006037461 ISBN: 978–0–7619–3383–0 (PB) 978–81–7829–525–1 (India–PB) Sage Production Team: Abantika Banerjee, Neha Kohli, Mathew P.J. and Santosh Rawat In loving memory of my grandparents (nani, dada and dadi) CONTENTS List of Tables 9 List of Figures 11 List of Boxes 14 List of Abbreviations 17 Preface 20 Acknowledgements 22 SECTION I Chapter 1 Development Research Techniques 27 Chapter 2 Social Research: Genesis and Scope 48 Chapter 3 Research Process 62 Chapter 4 Sampling and Sample Size Estimation 88 Chapter 5 Data Analysis 122 Chapter 6 Multivariate Analysis 177 Chapter 7 Data Analysis Using Quantitative Software 228 SECTION II Chapter 8 Population, Health and Nutrition 271 Chapter 9 Education 308 Chapter 10 Water and Sanitation 319 Chapter 11 Poverty, Inequality and Rural Development 336 Chapter 12 Environment and Natural Resource Management 351 8 QUANTITATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS Appendices Appendix A Basic Mathematics Theory 382 Appendix B Probability Theory and Distribution 387 Appendix C Z and T Distributions 394 Glossary 398 Bibliography 411 Index 424 About the Author 432 LIST OF TABLES 1.1 Cost and Benefit Distribution Over N Number of Years 28 1.2 Review of District Action Plan Implementation 32 5.1 Educational Characteristics by Gender: Cell Proportion 130 5.2 Educational Characteristics by Gender: Cell Numbers 131 5.3 Testing Hypothesis: One-sample T Test Descriptives 158 5.4 Testing Hypothesis: One-sample T Test 158 5.5 Decision-making Matrix 159 5.6 Parametric Test and Non-parametric Test 162 6.1 Variable Entered in an Equation Using the Enter Method 181 6.2 Regression Model Summary Using Enter Method 181 6.3 Regression Model: Analysis of Variance 181 6.4 Standardized Coefficient of Variables Entered in an Equation 182 6.5 Summary of Canonical Discriminant Functions—Eigen Value 189 6.6 Summary of Canonical Discriminant Functions—Wilk’s Lambda 190 6.7 Standardized Discriminant Function 190 6.8 Classification Statistics: Prior Probability for Groups 190 6.9 Classifications Results 190 6.10 A Person Smoking and Getting Cancer 191 6.11 Dependent Variable Encoding 193 6.12 Variable Frequency (Categorical Coding) 193 6.13 Variable Model 193 6.14 Independent Variables Entered in the Equation 193 6.15 Summary Statistics 194 6.16 Testing Significance 194 6.17 Classification Table for Dependent Variable 194 10 QUANTITATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS 6.18 Summary of the Variables’ Statistics in the Equation 194 6.19 Factors and Level for the Study 201 6.20 Correlation Matrix Showing Correlations Among Variables 204 6.21 Extraction of Factors Among Variables 205 6.22 Table Showing Factor Loadings 206 6.23 Correspondence Table 216 6.24 Correspondence Analysis: Row Profile 217 6.25 Correspondence Analysis: Column Profile 217 6.26 Correspondence Analysis: Summary Statistics 217 7.1 Weighting Cases by Number of Eligible Women 251 7.2 Weighting Cases Using Adjusted Weights 251 7.3 Indicators Selected to Create Index 253 7.4 Item-total Statistics 255 7.5 Independent Sample Test 258 7.6 One-way ANOVA: Descriptives 259 7.7 One-way ANOVA: Test of Homogeneity of Variances 260 7.8 Model Statistics: ANOVA 260 8.1 Immunization Schedule 288 11.1 Distribution of Poverty Ratio (rural and urban) 1973–74 to 1999–2000 343 11.2 Breakdown of Rural Employment, 1999–2000 345 12.1 Status of Suspended Particles 359 LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 LFA Matrix 31 3.1 Social Research Process 63 3.2 Quantitative Research Design Classification 64 4.1 Negative Exponential Distribution 93 4.2 Normal Distribution 95 4.3 Characteristics of Normal Distribution 96 4.4 Characteristics of Standard Normal Distribution 97 4.5 Characteristics of T Distribution 98 4.6 Characteristics of Chi-square Distribution 99 4.7 Characteristics of F Distribution 100 4.8 Missing Value Analysis Using SPSS 113 5.1 Classification of Data Types 123 5.2 Method of Data Analysis 125 5.3 Descriptive Analysis Type 125 5.4 Cross-tab Statistics Window 130 5.5 Frequency Distribution: Histogram 135 5.6a Graphical Representation: Bar Chart 136 5.6b Graphical Representation: Line Chart 136 5.6c Graphical Representation: Pie Chart 137 5.7 Positively-skewed Distribution 141 5.8 Negatively-skewed Distribution 141 5.9 Figure Showing Kurtosis (Peaked Nature of Distribution) 142 5.10 General Linear Model Using SPSS 150 5.11 Figure Showing the Rejection Region for Z Score of –0.025 and 0.025 156 12 QUANTITATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS 5.12 Figure Showing the Rejection Region for a One-tailed Test 157 5.13 Non-parametric Test for Two Independent Samples Using SPSS 170 5.14 Non-parametric Test of K-independent Sample Using SPSS 173 6.1 Overview of Multivariate Research Techniques 178 6.2 Multiple Linear Regression Using SPSS 180 6.3 MANOVA Using SPSS 185 6.4 Discriminant Analysis Using SPSS 189 6.5 Logistic Regression Window Options 192 6.6a Logit Model Using SPSS 198 6.6b Probit Model Using SPSS 198 6.7 Canonical Correlation (Multivariate Window) 200 6.8a Factor Analysis Using SPSS 207 6.8b Factor Analysis: Descriptive Window 207 6.8c Factor Analysis: Extraction Window 208 6.8d Factor Analysis: Rotation Window 208 6.9a Cluster Analysis Using SPSS 212 6.9b Hierarchical Cluster Analysis: Plot Window 212 6.9c Hierarchical Cluster Analysis: Method Window 213 6.10 Multidimensional Scaling Using SPSS 215 6.11a Correspondence Analysis Using SPSS 218 6.11b Correspondence Analysis: Method Window 218 6.11c Correspondence Analysis: Statistics Window 219 6.12 Figure Showing Correspondence Map 219 6.13 Input Path Diagram 221 6.14 Survival Analysis Using SPSS 223 6.15 Time-series Analysis Using SPSS 225 7.1 Overview of Stata 229 7.2 Overview of SPSS Data Editor 240 7.3 Variable View Window 241 7.4 SPSS File Open Option 242 7.5 Option of Opening an Excel File: SPSS 243 7.6 Opening Excel Data Source: SPSS 244 7.7 Welcome to Database Wizard Window: SPSS 244 7.8 ODBC Microsoft Access Setup: SPSS 245 7.9 Retrieving Data from the Available Table: SPSS 246 7.10 Retrieving Fields in the Selected Order: SPSS 246 7.11 Creating New Variables Using ‘Compute’: SPSS 249 7.12 Splitting a Data File for Analysis: SPSS 250 7.13 Defining Missing Value for Analysis: SPSS 252 7.14 Window Showing Option of Reliability Analysis: SPSS 254 LIST OF FIGURES 13 7.15 Reliability Analysis Statistics: SPSS 254 7.16 Analysing Frequencies: SPSS 256 7.17 Cross-tabs Statistics: SPSS 257 7.18 Regression by Stepwise Method 262 7.19 Overview of Output Window: SPSS 264 7.20 Overview of Pivoting Trays: SPSS 265 7.21 Overview of Available Options: SPSS 266 11.1 Lorentz Curve Showing Income Inequality 339 11.2 Concentration Curve Showing Ill-health 342 12.1 Status of Forest Cover in India 353 LIST OF BOXES 1.1 Definition of Terms Used in a Logframe Matrix 31 1.2 Kaldor and Hicks Criterion 41 2.1 Qualitative Monitoring/Evaluation Framework: The Principle, Criteria 52 and Indicator Approach 2.2 Terms Frequently Used in Monitoring and Evaluation 53 2.3 Evaluating Effectiveness and Efficiency 56 2.4 Network Analysis 57 3.1 Translation of Survey Items into Vernacular Languages 72 3.2 Benchmark and Indexes 75 3.3 Index of Discriminating Power 75 3.4 Precision and Accuracy 77 3.5 Internal and Inter-rater Reliability 78 3.6 Transcription and Content Analysis 85 4.1 Data Transformation to Attain Uniform Variance 97 4.2 WHO Recommended 30 by 7 Cluster Sample Technique for EPI 105 4.3 How Standard Deviation is Different from Standard Error 115 5.1 Selection of Appropriate Coefficient for Nominal Variable 128 5.2 Nominal Coefficient Using SPSS 129 5.3 Coefficient to Use in Case of Ordinal/Ranked Variables 133 5.4 Skewed Distribution and Position of Mean, Median and Mode 139 5.5 Measures of Relative Standing 143 LIST OF BOXES 15 5.6 Interpreting Spread of Distribution 145 5.7 Correlation as a Measure of Linear Association 149 5.8 Homoscedasticity and Heteroscedasticity 151 5.9 Decision to Choose One-tailed Test or Two-tailed Test 156 5.10 Non-parametric Test for Two Independent Samples Using SPSS 169 5.11 Non-parametric Test of K-independent Samples Using SPSS 173 6.1 Least Square Estimation and Correlation Among Variables 179 6.2 Determining the Variable Accounting for Most Variance in the Dependent Variable 182 6.3 Regression with Many Predictors and/or Several Dependent Variables 183 6.4 Classification of MANOVA 184 6.5 Application of Maximum Likelihood Estimation 195 6.6 Usage of Probit