EPA/600/R-10/183F | December 2011 | www.epa.gov Biofuels and the Environment: First Triennial Report to Congress EPA/600/R-10/183F December 2011 Biofuels and the Environment: First Triennial Report to Congress National Center for Environmental Assessment Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC DISCLAIMER This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation of use. ABSTRACT This is the first triennial Report to Congress required under Section 204 of the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA). EISA increases the renewable fuel standards (RFS) to 36 billion gallons per year by 2022. Section 204 requires an assessment of environmental and resource conservation impacts of the RFS program. Air and water quality, soil quality and conservation, water availability, ecosystem health and biodiversity, invasive species, and international impacts are assessed, as well as opportunities to mitigate these impacts. Feedstocks compared include corn starch, soybeans, corn stover, perennial grasses, woody biomass, algae, and waste. Biofuels compared include conventional and cellulosic ethanol and biodiesel. This report is a qualitative assessment of peer-reviewed literature. This report concludes that (1) the extent of negative impacts to date are limited in magnitude and are primarily associated with the intensification of corn production; (2) whether future impacts are positive or negative will be determined by the choice of feedstock, land use change, cultivation and conservation practices; and (3) realizing potential benefits will require implementation and monitoring of conservation and best management practices, improvements in production efficiency, and implementation of innovative technologies at commercial scales. This report provides a foundation for comprehensive environmental assessments of biofuel production. Preferred citation: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2011. Biofuels and the Environment: First Triennial Report to Congress. Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC; EPA/600/R-10/183F. Available online at http://epa.gov/ncea. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................XIV 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1-1 1.1. Organization of This Report ................................................................................ 1-3 2. BACKGROUND AND APPROACH ............................................................................. 2-1 2.1. EISA and RFS2 Requirements for Biofuel Production and Use ......................... 2-1 2.1.1. Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Thresholds .................................................. 2-2 2.1.2. Life Cycle Assessment and Environmental Impacts ............................... 2-3 2.1.3. Projected Fuel and Feedstock Use to Meet Required RFS2 Targets through 2022 ............................................................................................ 2-4 2.2. Regulatory Authority Relevant to Biofuel Environmental Impacts .................... 2-6 2.3. Approach to the Section 204 Report .................................................................... 2-7 2.3.1. Qualitative Synthesis of the Literature Reviewed for This Report .......... 2-7 2.3.2. Biofuel Production Stages Discussed in This Report .............................. 2-8 2.3.3. Feedstocks and Fuels Discussed in This Report ...................................... 2-9 2.3.4. Impacts Discussed in This Report............................................................ 2-9 3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SPECIFIC FEEDSTOCKS .......................................... 3-1 3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3-1 3.2. Row Crops (Corn, Corn Stover, Soybeans) ......................................................... 3-3 3.2.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 3-3 3.2.2. Overview of Environmental Impacts ....................................................... 3-3 3.2.3. Current and Projected Cultivation ........................................................... 3-5 3.2.4. Water Quality ........................................................................................... 3-9 3.2.5. Water Quantity ....................................................................................... 3-17 3.2.6. Soil Quality ............................................................................................ 3-21 3.2.7. Air Quality ............................................................................................. 3-23 3.2.8. Ecosystem Impacts................................................................................. 3-25 3.2.9. Key Findings .......................................................................................... 3-28 3.3. Perennial Grasses ............................................................................................... 3-31 3.3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 3-31 3.3.2. Overview of Environmental Impacts ..................................................... 3-33 3.3.3. Current and Projected Cultivation ......................................................... 3-33 3.3.4. Water Quality ......................................................................................... 3-34 3.3.5. Water Quantity ....................................................................................... 3-38 3.3.6. Soil Quality ............................................................................................ 3-39 3.3.7. Air Quality ............................................................................................. 3-40 3.3.8. Ecosystem Impacts................................................................................. 3-41 3.3.9. Key Findings .......................................................................................... 3-45 3.4. Woody Biomass ................................................................................................. 3-47 3.4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 3-47 3.4.2. Overview of Environmental Impacts ..................................................... 3-48 3.4.3. Current and Projected Production Areas ................................................ 3-48 3.4.4. Water Quality ......................................................................................... 3-49 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED) 3.4.5. Water Quantity ....................................................................................... 3-51 3.4.6. Soil Quality ............................................................................................ 3-52 3.4.7. Air Quality ............................................................................................. 3-53 3.4.8. Ecosystem Impacts................................................................................. 3-54 3.4.9. Key Findings .......................................................................................... 3-56 3.5. Algae .................................................................................................................. 3-57 3.5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 3-57 3.5.2. Overview of Environmental Impacts ..................................................... 3-59 3.5.3. Current and Projected Cultivation ......................................................... 3-59 3.5.4. Water Quality ......................................................................................... 3-60 3.5.5. Water Quantity ....................................................................................... 3-60 3.5.6. Soil Quality ............................................................................................ 3-61 3.5.7. Air Quality ............................................................................................. 3-61 3.5.8. Ecosystem Impacts................................................................................. 3-61 3.5.9. Key Findings .......................................................................................... 3-62 3.6. Waste-Based Feedstocks .................................................................................... 3-63 3.6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 3-63 3.6.2. Municipal Solid Waste ........................................................................... 3-64 3.6.3. Other Wastes .......................................................................................... 3-64 3.6.4. Environmental Impacts of Waste-Based Biofuel ................................... 3-65 3.7. Summary of Feedstock-Dependent Impacts on Specialized Habitats ............... 3-65 3.7.1. Forests .................................................................................................... 3-66 3.7.2. Grasslands .............................................................................................. 3-66 3.7.3. Impacts