University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1986 Nature of totalitarian diplomacy: Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini as test cases Gary Lee Frazer The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Frazer, Gary Lee, "Nature of totalitarian diplomacy: Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini as test cases" (1986). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 5233. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/5233 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1976 Th is is an unpublished m a n u s c r ip t in w h ic h c o p y r ig h t su b ­ s i s t s . Any further r e p r in t in g of it s contents must be appro ved BY THE AUTHOR. Ma n s f ie l d L ib r a r y Un iv e r s it y of Montana Date : _____ 1 THE NATURE OF TOTALITARIAN DIPLOMACY: ADOLF HITLER AND BENITO MUSSOLINI AS TEST CASES by Gary Lee Frazer B.A., University of Montana, 1980 B.A., University of Montana, 1981 Presented in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA 1986 Approved by: Chairman, Board of Examiners ff£an, Gradua UMI Number: EP40697 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI Dissertation WBIiWrig UMI EP40697 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code iiest* ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 ABSTRACT Frazer, Gary Lee, M.A., Spring, 1986 History The Nature of T o talitarian Diplomacy: Adolf H itle r and Benito Mussolini as Test Cases Director: Paul G. Lauren, Ph.D. The objective of this thesis is to gain a better understanding of the v ita l problem of to ta lita ria n diplomacy in relation to twentieth- century diplomatic history by examining the manner in which Adolf H itle r and Benito Mussolini practiced th e ir diplomacy. By examining government documents, diplomatic papers, d iaries, memoirs and the classic works of English language scholarship on the subject of Fascist and Nazi diplomacy, I plan to demonstrate the differences and the problems which to ta lita ria n diplomacy presented to the trad itio nal methods of diplomacy as practiced by the Western democracies. The differences between H itle r's and Mussolini's diplomacy and the trad itio nal diplomacy of the Western powers can be summarized as follows (1) both H itle r and Mussolini possessed an extraordinary amount of independence in the conduct of th e ir foreign a ffa irs as compared to the Western leaders, (2) both dictator's regimes suffered from a lack of professionals in their diplomatic corps, (3) neither dictator had to consider the impact of public opinion upon his diplomacy to the same degree as the Western diplomats, (4) both H itle r and Mussolini held d iffe re n t views from the Western diplomats as to the purpose of diplomacy in foreign a ffa irs , and (5) neither dictato r shared the same ideological beliefs as the Western leaders. Not only were the Western diplomats forced to adapt to the changes in diplomatic method introduced by such modern pressures as new elaborate departments, expanded s ta ffs , enlarged budgets, new personnel policies, and sophisticated inventions, but they were also forced to confront a direct challenge to the very purpose of diplomacy which formed the universal basis for all international negotiations. Both H itle r and Mussolini accepted warfare as a necessary ingredient of national policy, and they were both confident that they could achieve their goals by the proper exercise of military force. The failure of the Western diplomats to recognize Hitler's and Mussolini's contempt for the values of traditional diplomatic practice, and to counter the challenges which both H itler and Mussolini presented to trad itio n al diplomacy by adopting suitable coutnermeasures, clearly demonstrated the in a b ility of trad itio nal diplomacy to cope with the unique problems which to ta lita ria n diplomacy introduced to in te r­ national relations. For My Parents George and Ruth Frazer ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. Paul G. Lauren, Dr. Richard R. Drake, Dr. Forest L. Grieves and Dr. Donald Spencer for their invaluable assistance throughout the completion of this thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT . .................................................................... i i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS '................................................................................. iv I . INTRODUCTION : ...................................................................... 1 I I . HITLER'S DIPLOMACY ............................................................. 7 H itle r as Leader............................................................ 8 H itle r's Racism ............................................................. 15 Lebensraum............................................................................. 19 Hitler as Diplomat............................................................. 22 Delegation of Authority ............................................. 26 Role of the Foreign O f f ic e..........................................28 Role of the M i l i t a r y..................................................... 34 Role of the P a r t y..........................................................39 Hitler's Power in Diplomatic Practices................ 42 Limits of Hitler's Power................................ 42 Strengths of H itler's Power ................................... 47 I I I . MUSSOLINI'S DIPLOMACY.................................................... 52 Mussolini as Leader............................................ 53 T e rrito ria l Expansion ................................................ 63 Mussolini as Diplomat ................................................ 69 Delegation of Authority ............................................. 75 Role of the Foreign O ffice ..................................... 79 Role of the M i l i t a r y..................................................... 89 Role of the P a r t y..........................................................92 v Page Mussolini's Power in Diplomatic Practice .... 97 Limits of Mussolini's Power ................................ 98 Strengths of Mussolini's Power ........................ 102 IV. GERMAN AND ITALIAN INTERVENTION IN THE SPANISH CIVIL W A R ............................................................... 107 Hitler's Intervention Policies ................................ 108 Hitler's Objectives ................................................ 108 H itle r's Procedures ............................ ..... 112 Hitler's Results ......................................................... 115 Mussolini's Intervention Policies ........................ 116 Mussolini's Objectives ............................................. 116 Mussolini's Procedures ...... .................... 119 Mussolini's Results .................... ....... 121 Diplomatic Practice in the Spanish C ivil War . 125 V. TOTALITARIAN DIPLOMACY IN PRACTICE ............................ 128 Hitler's Diplomacy in Practice................................ 128 Mussolini's Diplomacy in Practice .................... 134 Conclusion: The Nature of T o talitarian Diplomacy as Practiced by Adolf H itle r and Benito Mussolini ........................................................ 140 i End N o t e s ........................................................................................... 161 Selected Bibliography ................................................................ 178 v i I. INTRODUCTION In order to understand the nature of to ta lita ria n diplomacy as Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini practiced it, one must consider not only the unique conduct of each d ictato r, but also the underlying differences between "trad itio n al" or "classical" diplomacy and to ta lita ria n diplomacy. The classical period of diplomacy, which reached its zenith during the nineteenth century, was characterized by certain accepted standards which the major European nation states agreed to follow in conducting their foreign relations. In his book, The Evolution of Diplomatic Method, Harold Nicolson affirms that the classical period of diplomacy was characterized by the "establishment in every European country of a professional diplomatic service on a more or less identical model." Moreover, according to him, the professional diplomats of each European country "possessed similar standards of education, similar experience, and a sim ilar aim." They a ll shared a common heritage, and they a ll desired the same sort of world. In short, "they all believed, what­ ever th e ir governments might believe, that the purpose of diplomacy