NORIAH TASLIM THE MAKING OF THE MEDIEVAL MALAY HERO HANG TUAH: STORIES BEHIND THE EPIC SCENE Noriah Taslim [email protected] Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Universiti Brunei Darussalam Abstract The essay attempts to look at the scene behind the making of a hero in Malay medieval society. Such attempt is vital in order to understand not only the rise of a legendary hero, Hang Tuah, from his ordinary status in Sejarah Melayu (The Malay Annal) to his supra-human figure in the epic Hikayat Hang Tuah but also to gauge the social, political and psychological milieu behind the epic composition. The premise of the argument in this essay is that a hero is built and not born. Pushing it from there, the essay endeavours to prove the point by extensively reading on the milieu and time behind the emergence of Hikayat Hang Tuah. While exploring these, the essay also looks at the process of inventing the epic, which include identifying sources and materials borrowed, distorted, inverted and appropriated by the author to bring forth this traditional but unique literary creation. Keywords: epic, hero, heroism, heroic deeds, heroic age, ethnocentrism INTRODUCTION The so-called “Malay hikayat literature” (encompassing all genres) had always had a bad name among Malayists in the past; myriad of comments coming from scholar or researchers stating that the Malay hikayats were just “an assemblage of tales and legends” or “a product of Malay fantasy” or perhaps merely “a confuse history without recourse to any real events 159 MALAY LITERATURE in the past”. While many considered them as “silly and boring texts”; and as works of literature, “these texts lack literary merits and their moral tone was bad”. However, in our reappraisal of these hikayats, we believe that these views were much maligned by the so-called western-centric vision of other cultures (Malay culture included), based on a rather skewed model of literary evaluation. I do not however, plan to verify my points here, but suffice to say that, if we desire for a more balanced appraisal and appreciation of these hikayats, we need to reposition our reading strategy and to look for more accountable methods of evaluation. These will certainly involve first and foremost a shift in our reading orientation–from western centeredness to Malay centeredness. This essay is an attempt at that. THE EPIC HIKAYAT HANG TUAH: ITS GENRE, STRUCTURE AND NATURE This brings us to the topic at hand. We are dealing with one of the most well-known hikayats in the corpus of Malay medieval literature, viz. the Hikayat Hang Tuah (henceforth, HHT). HHT was indeed a confusing texts to the Malayists–it is a complexly hybrid narrative and its contents oscillating between fact and fantasy, legend and history. To add up to the confusion, HHT like most Malay medieval texts, exhibits structural features that defy straight forward attempt for it to be categorized into any specific genre. Thus, Winstedt (1961), a strong proponent of the evolutionary positivism (Maier, 1985) called it “a Malayo–Javanese romance” while others considered it as “an adventure romance” or at best “a Malay legendary romance” (Hooykaas, 1953); Teeuw later on (1964) coined the term “a Malay romance” to resolve the confusion and misunderstanding over the historical nature of the text (see T. Iskandar,1970; Parnickel, 1976). We are here not to repudiate these rather arbitrary claims on HHT,1 but to point out the incorrectness of the arguments that were brought upon the text that subsequently led to the wrong conclusion as to the nature of its genre. As what we perceive thus far, these western scholars had not fully grasped the obvious structural features that point to the exact genre of this text. This is partly regarded due to the short-sightedness of these scholars in viewing an alien culture. They, like most orientalists in the colonial era were incapable of viewing other cultures without filtering any racial prejudices and stereotypes that stemmed from the 19th century western notions about themselves and others (see Edward Said, 1978). NORIAH TASLIM Within this ideological frame, Malay literature was perceived as a product of an inferior race (sometimes referred to as semi-civilized) and thus do not merit, so to speak, a more serious attention. To simplify the matters, HHT then was likened to the “panji romance” or at best, it was just another “hikayat romance”, of the same category as Hikayat Inderaputera. Though admittedly, HHT does share some common features of the hikayat romance, it also exhibits its own structural uniqueness, a complexity of theme and idiosyncrasy of character that detached it from its counterpart–the ordinary and typical hikayat romance. Kassim Ahmad (1964) aptly pointed HHT to a specific genre. He called it a national epic–probably the most original Malay epic (and also Malay texts) and the only one in the history of medieval Malay literature; and not a modest one at that but a full scale epic both in style and narrative structures. HHT is unquestionably an epic par excellance; indeed, to quote Valentijn’s remark (in T. Iskandar, 1970) “a very rare gem” and “the best of Malay composition.” As an epic, HHT is first and foremost a work of literature (as Teeuw, 1964 rightly pointed out). This notion would help to cancel out any attempt to read it as “history” or a historical work in the modern sense; and also help to point to the futility of finding correspondences between the texts and the real world. This is because literature does not mimic the real world in its literal sense but distorts and manipulates, deconstructs and recreates it, to bring forth another world, an allusion to and illusion of the real world. This however does not obliterate the fact that “history” is still present and traceable in literary text; therefore it also should be valued as a social or cultural document. HHT is related to events, part real and part imaginary, about the heroic deeds and exploits of a probably 14th or 15th century Malacca warrior hero, named Hang Tuah. In the epic he plays a two-faced role–as a king’s servant (hamba) whose relentless loyalty helped upkeep the feudal order intact and also as the national hero whose heroic prowess both regionally and internationally was, according to Farish A. Noor (2010), helped defend the “Melayu” and the “negeri”. This dual role of being a servant and a saviour, became the guiding principle of all his actions and decisions, which subsequently morphed him into the epic hero as he was visualized to be. The epic apparently had as its nucleus, another great medieval text– the Sejarah Melayu (henceforth SM). It was here that Hang Tuah was first unfavourably mentioned. Contrary to the ideal image of him portrayed in the 161 MALAY LITERATURE epic, here he appeared as an ordinary human, an ambitious courtier whose many failings helped highlight the Bendahara’s noble character. To quote Josselin de Jong (1965:142): The annals depict a man of very great qualities of valour and initiative, but also with human failings of ambition, spite and jealousy … a normal … human being, whose life was of the normal human span, and whose death was apparently quite unremarkable. However, HHT, if we may correctly put it, was an offshoot of SM. The inter-textual link between the two is more than obvious (see T. Iskandar, 1970). Borrowing on Riffaterre’s concept of intertextuality (in Teeuw, 1983), SM is a “hypogram” for HHT, the text for it to plug in, but also to dismantle and sometimes inverted; thus, while parasitizing on the parent text, it also appropriates it to create its own. HHT was probably composed around early 18th century (1688-1710), about 100 or more years after the completion of SM; and most probably written within the vicinity of the Johor-Malacca court, likely to be in Riau. It was composed (in writing) singlehandedly by an author (though anonymous) and not as many believe was a collaborative effort over time by several authors (Farish A. Noor, 2010). HHT is indeed a massive text but with such strong structural coherence and wholeness (single structure and meaning) that it was unimaginable to think of it being augmented at different times by different authors. To string together such heterogeneous materials as what was found in the HHT and composing it into a single, meaningful, coherent and highly sophisticated text, will demand the skill of one, superbly creative, highly intelligent (the Malay word is arif bijaksana) and talented author. We believe the author of HHT was such a person. Authorial sources (oral and written) can be numerous, and indeed the author of HHT do tap his materials from these informants, among these sources (traceable in the texts) include works form authors of Sejarah Melayu, Bustan al- Salatin, Taj al-Salatin, Hikayat Aceh, even Hikayat Ibrahim Ibn Adham (T. Iskandar, 1970; Braginsky, 1990 ). But we need one author to consciously select, manipulate, appropriate and arrange these diverse materials to bring forth singlehandedly a unique literary creation as monumental as HHT. In comparison, one may be allowed to take as an example the two great Indian canonical epics – Ramayana and Mahabharata. Both epics were built upon diverse and heterogeneous materials (local history, legends, tales etc.) but it took one single author–Valmiki and Vyasa respectively, to finally arrange and 162 NORIAH TASLIM thread together the diverse materials to form the two magnificent, unparalleled Indian epics (Dandekar, 1956; Noriah Taslim, 1994). An epic is a traditional story–it has its nucleus in the history and the tradition of its nation. The sources or the building blocks do not originate independently from the author’s own experience or his own imaginations.