Social Exclusion of the Chepangs in the Era of Post-Political Revolution in Nepal - A Case Study of Dhading District. A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Anthropology of Development By Baikuntha Khanal Department of Social Anthropology University of Bergen June 2014 Table of Contents Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................v List of Maps …………………………………………………………………………………..vi List of Pictures……………………………………………………………………………….vi Abbreviations...........................................................................................................................vii Prologue…………………………………………………………………………………...........viii Chapter I Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….1 Social exclusion of the Chepangs …………………………………………………………….1 Multiple perspectives on „Social Exclusion‟………………………………………………….2 Indigenous ethnic groups in Nepal …………………………………………………………...4 Myths of Chepang‟s Origin …………………………………………………………………..5 The Chepang people…………………………………………………………………………..6 Problem Statement……………………………………………………………………………8 Central theoretical perspective………………………………………………………….........8 Research Setting……………………………………………………………………………........9 Majhimtar………………………………………………………………………………........11 Laitak………………………………………………………………………………………..12 The Robang Village………………………………………………………………………….14 Methodological Consideration………………………………………………………………….17 Access to the field…………………………………………………………………………..17 Participant Observation ……………………………………………………………….........19 i Oral History………………………………………………………………………………….21 Ethnographic Interviews……………………………………………………………………..21 Ethical Consideration……………………………………………………………………..........22 Chapter II Transformations in Constitutional policies and of the lives of the Chepangs in Nepal …………………………………………………………………………………………...25 Discrimination of Indigenous groups in pre-revolution era of Nepal: Caste………………….25 Constitutional Reformations after 1990: Multi-cultural state…………………………………27 Changing notion of „Development‟ in Nepal……………………………………………….…29 Government initiatives for the development of the Chepangs………………………………...30 Initiatives of I/NGOs for the betterment of the Chepangs…………………………………….31 Improved living condition of the Chepang………………………………………………………33 From food deficit to sufficiency………………………………………………………...........33 From subsistence economy to wage work economy………………………………….............36 Citizenship Certificate………………………………………………………………………..39 Employment and infrastructure development………………………………………………...42 Summing up…………………………………………………………………………………...…44 Chapter III The Chepangs: Livelihood, Ethnic identity and Natural resources…………….46 Insecure livelihood……………………………………………………………………….........46 Land dispossession……………………………………………………………………….....46 Food insufficiency and consumption………………………………………………….........50 ii Discrimination in the labor market and wage labor………………………………………...53 Unemployment and discrimination…………………………………………………………56 Housing…………………………………………………………………………………..….58 Isolation from fundamental rights of Education and Health………………………………...61 Health……………………………………………………………………………………...63 Ethnic Identity and politics: Chepang Language and Religion……………………………….....64 Access to Natural Resources……………………………………………………………….........68 Chapter conclusion………………………………………………………………………………71 Chapter IV Mechanisms of Social Exclusion.......................................................................................73 Introduction...............................................................................................................................73 Poverty.....................................................................................................................................73 Graduated Sovereignty in Nepal ........................................................................................76 Spatial disparity..................................................................................................................79 Patron-client relationship between Chepangs and Non- Chepangs...................................81 Brahmin-Chepang Patronage.........................................................................................82 NGO-Chepang Patronage .............................................................................................83 Short term consumption pattern...........................................................................................86 Lack of Capabilities and Entitlement..................................................................................88 Summing up..............................................................................................................................90 Chapter V Summary and conclusion..................................................................................................92 iii Bibliography .......................................................................................................................97 Glossary................................................................................................................................105 Index I………………………………………………………………………………...……..107 Index II...................................................................................................................................107 iv Acknowledgements First and Foremost, an earnest appreciation goes to my supervisor, Anette Fagertun whose outstanding guidance and immense encouragement in every step made me able to produce the thesis in this form. I admire her quality of presenting complex matters in a comprehensive way which was helpful to me to complete the thesis on given time. I am sincerely thankful to my dearest wife, Samita Aryal for her continuous encouragement, belief and unfailing love. It would not be possible to write the thesis without her precious support in every step of my academic career. I would like to express sincere gratitude to my father-in-law and brother-in-law for their assistance to overcome challenges that I faced in my fieldwork. I am too grateful to all my informants for their precious information and valuable time. I feel indebted to them for their respect, support and love during my stay in the field. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my respected parents for their love and support in my academic career from childhood till this age. I would not be a student of Bergen University if my parents were unsupportive to me. I am thankful to University of Bergen for providing me an opportunity to be a M. Phil student of Social anthropology department. At the same time, I would like to thank Lånekassen for financial support. I would like to thank to all my professors and academic staffs for their insightful lectures and also, to other staffs for their practical assistance. I appreciate the cooperation and friendship of my colleagues. Baikuntha khanal June 2014 v List of Maps Map No. Title of Maps Page No. 1 Map of Nepal 10 2 Map of Dhading district with Jogimara VDC 10 List of Pictures Figure No. Title of Figures Page No. 1 A Chepang girl picking stinging nettle for food. 13 2 Slash and burn cultivation 15 3 The Chepangs and their hut 16 4 The Church of Christian Chepangs 17 5 A Pandey enchanting in Nwagi, an indigenous festival 20 6 A hut of a Chepang 59 7 Modern house of a Chepang 59 vi Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank CBS Central Bureau Statistics CDO Community Development Organization DFID Department for International Development GoN Government of Nepal ILO International Labor Organization INGO International Non-Governmental Organization NCA Nepal Chepang Association NFDIN National foundation for development of Indigenous Nationalities NGO Non-Governmental Organization NPR Nepalese Rupees NSD Norwegian Social Science Data Services PAF Poverty Alleviation Fund PDP Praja Development program SLC School Leaving Certificate UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Program UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCS United Nations High Commission on Structure UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social Development USAID United States Agency for International development USD United State Dollar VDC Village Development Commitee WHO World Health Organization vii Prologue No Grains at home Kangsirang’s Brother-in-law makes us alone. How unfortunate! Wherever we go grief is with us No food without heavy task Visit Chyuri tree to trap bats Drink Jaad with nonsense talks How unfortunate! We are poor working in our landlord’s field Leave our own lands barren without yield Dhading court/government is deaf for us Village leader turn their back to us. How unfortunate! Source: Song Sung by an old Chepang in fieldwork During my fieldwork, I spent most of the time with the local Chepangs engaging in different household works and other outside works after establishing good rapport. Most of the Chepangs were dependent upon agriculture for their subsistence, so their main activities were to work in the field, grow crops and vegetables, and graze cattle in forest. During fieldwork, I used to go to the forest with a herd of goats with an old Chepang who was „an expert‟ to sing songs in both Nepali and Chepang language. This song above was sung by Sukdev Chepang, an old man of 70 year in his own Chepang language which I recorded it with his consent. In the beginning, I could not grasp the meaning except melody and rhymes due to unfamiliarity of the Chepang language. Since he could speak Nepali language