Making sense of a wildlife tourism experience: A study of guide-visitor interactions Jonathon Peter Spring A thesis submitted to Auckland University of Technology in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) 2017 School of Hospitality and Tourism Faculty of Culture and Society II Dedicated to Sam Ham, Paul Forestell, Doug Knapp, and Mark Orams: The unholy tetrarchy that inspired me to push through the boundaries of how interpretation is researched. Source: Reproduced with permission from Martin Sanders. The Morepork, or Ruru (Ninox Novaeseelandiae) III Abstract Interpretation plays an important role in making visitors aware of the welfare and conservation status of wildlife when participating on a wildlife tour. Guide visitor interaction during wildlife tours provides the opportunity for guides to deliver information that educates and inspires visitors to think about what actions they can undertake for the welfare of the animal species encountered. There have been few empirical investigations of learning and behavioural change in the context of guided tours that include studies of the interaction between visitors and guide that is independent of the experience of the participants and/or use the experience of both visitors and guides. The rationale behind this thesis was to explore the relationship between instances of guide visitor interaction during wildlife tours and the personal insights and outcomes visitors gained from their tours. The aim of this research was to better understand the role of the guides on visitors’ experiences, and to gain insights into the nuances of interactions between wildlife tour guides and the outcomes of these experiences for the tourists. This research set out to explore what scenarios in guided wildlife tours facilitate visitors’ receptivity for learning new information and to examine the role/s guides play in this learning. In order to achieve this goal the following questions were set: 1. Can visitors and guides identify a situation within a guided wildlife tour where visitors are most receptive to learning? 2. What are the factors within a guided wildlife tour that influence visitors’ receptivity to learning? 3. Can visitors’ receptivity to learning be discerned through observable behaviour such as visible signs of affect or curiosity on the part of visitors? IV 4. What level of interaction do visitors seek from guides in the learning process of a guided wildlife tour? 5. What role do guides play in the facilitation and enhancement of learning during the guided wildlife tour? This research investigated the guided tour experiences of visitors on trips operated by two non-government organisations, Pacific Whale Foundation, Maui, USA and Supporters of Tiritiri Matangi, Auckland, New Zealand. The qualitative design of the research was influenced by Forestell and Kaufman’s (1990) and Orams’ (1997) models for interpretation, Burke’s (1945) four tropes, and Flanagan’s (1954) critical incident technique. Using narrative methods this research collected data through participation in and observation of wildlife tours and via in-depth semi-structured interviews with visitors and guides about these tours. The design of the interview process consisted of an in situ phase immediately after the tour, and a reflective interview held at a later date. A total of 10 separate case studies focusing on the events, commentary and conversations during tours were derived and analysed. The thesis found that guide - visitor interaction plays an important and influential role in shaping visitors’ experiences during wildlife tours. Guides influence visitor experiences through provoking visitors to think about what they hear and see on tours in relation to their existing knowledge and experiences. The research proposes a new model of wildlife tours which emphasises the complex range of influences involved in guide - visitor interactions in wildlife tourism contexts. Those who believed they learnt something from their tours were able to identify instances of guide visitor interaction that created new insights for them about the places and wildlife encountered. Others enjoyed their experiences and attributed the role of guide visitor interaction to reinforcing what they already knew or what they already did. V Attestation of Authorship I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institution of higher learning ………………………………………………… Jonathon Peter Spring 19th August 2016 VI Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to acknowledge the first peoples, the Tangata Whenua and explorers, of Alaska, Hawaii and New Zealand who framed my understanding of the animals and plants that are the beating heart of this thesis. I acknowledge the Pūriri (Vitex Lucens) tree whose role in sustaining the last remnant population of Bellbirds (Anthornis melanura) in the Auckland region forged the vision and partnership of John Craig and Neil Mitchell that transformed Tiritiri Matangi. I would also like to acknowledge the Takahē (Porphyrio hochstetteri) known as Greg. His notoriety made it easier to engage participants in this study. I acknowledge the pod of Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeaeangeliae) that Paul Forestell and Greg Kaufman first encountered together, and who helped cement their partnership in advocacy, conservation and education. I acknowledge Jim and Barbara Battersby, Ray and Barbara Walter, Maurice and Karen Colgan who show that partnerships in love and conservation can create something special. Thank you to Dr John Sumich, John Staniland and the Ark in the Park whanau for showing me how I can practically contribute to conservation. Thank you to Koro Carman who gave me insights into the essence of interpretation. Thank you to Amy Lethbridge, John and Jenny Pastorelli, Rick Morales and Paul Caputo and the rest of the National Associations of Interpretation whanau for all the fun and learning. Thank you to Cathy Catto in providing advice and guidance at difficult moments. In the same vein, my thanks to John Bryant, John Pellow, and James Usmar for taking the time to listen and help. Thank you so much to the research participants for sharing your experiences and stories with me. I am humbled by what you chose to share and I want to emphasise that without your support this thesis would not have been possible. I would like to acknowledge the support of Professor Michael Lück and Professor Mark Orams for their patience, cajoling, love of teaching, and giant-like shoulders. Thank you to Dr Barbara Plester for providing a pathway for me through your merging of personal passions and good scholarship into meaningful studies about the human condition. Thanks to Dr Eric Shelton for all his efforts in trying to secure a research site in Dunedin, New Zealand for me. Also thank you for the support of all the staff such as Rick, Deborah, Hamish, Heike, John, and Simon as well as other stakeholders of VII Auckland University of Technology who made it possible for me to complete this thesis. To my wife, Charon Spring-Dijkstra, you are everything to me. To my daughter, Myfanwy Ruakere-Spring, for all that you have taught me. My pathway to conservation and interpretation began with trying to be more imaginative in my parenting of a teenage daughter. To my son, Tiaki, for sharing walks in Dingle Dell, nappy change, and playtime. To Robert Spring, my father for his constant love. Thank you to my mothers, Jayne, Leslie and Sara, to my brothers and sisters, Sally, Jennie, Rachel, David, Jeffery, Natalie, and the rest of the Dijkstra-Garside-Mackie-Pinhey-Schokker- Spring whanau for all their love and support. To Kelvin Mackie, the truest of friends. I would like to acknowledge Brooke Porter and Merrill Kaufman in helping me to get to Maui, and providing me with so much help while there. I would like to acknowledge the support of Liz Stone of Shepston Editing Services and Andrew Lavery of Academic Consulting in the preparation of the thesis. I also would like to acknowledge the support of John Craig and Peter Lee for taking the time to support my research. Thank you to Des Mann and other SoTM volunteers for sharing ideas and insights about guiding and learning. I would also like to acknowledge Mary-Ann Rowland’s unstinting support and help, especially for her patient explanation to so many people of why I would like to observe their tour. I would like to acknowledge the support of my AIS whanau and my bosses, Dr Semisi Taumoepeau, Hamish Small, and Dr Erwin Losekoot. I would also like to acknowledge the camaraderie and support of my fellow PhD students, Brooke, Guillaume, and Dominik. Thank you to David Attenborough, Jane Austen, Jacob Bronowski, Ann Druyan, John Kirwan, Carl Sagan, John Tolkien, Evelyn Waugh, Robert Wenke, and Michael Wood for your nurturing words during some dark times. Finally, thank you to Richard Rorty for being such a stubborn gadfly. I was determined to make sense of your obstinacy. VIII CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. III ATTESTATION OF AUTHORSHIP .......................................................................... V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... VI LIST