THE MULTIVOCALITY OF THE CROSS OF THE SCRIPTURES: CLAIMING VICTORY, KINGSHIP, AND TERRITORY IN EARLY MEDIEVAL IRELAND by Caitlin Hutchison A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Art History Spring 2019 © 2019 Caitlin Hutchison All Rights Reserved THE MULTIVOCALITY OF THE CROSS OF THE SCRIPTURES: CLAIMING VICTORY, KINGSHIP, AND TERRITORY IN EARLY MEDIEVAL IRELAND by Caitlin Hutchison Approved: __________________________________________________________ Lawrence Nees, Ph.D. Chair of the Department of Art History Approved: __________________________________________________________ John Pelesko, Ph.D. Interim Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences Approved: __________________________________________________________ Douglas J. Doren, Ph.D. Interim Vice Provost for Graduate and Professional Education I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: __________________________________________________________ Lawrence Nees, Ph.D. Professor in charge of dissertation I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: __________________________________________________________ Lauren Petersen, Ph.D. Member of dissertation committee I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: __________________________________________________________ Denva Gallant, Ph.D. Member of dissertation committee I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: __________________________________________________________ Benjamin Tilghman, Ph.D. Member of dissertation committee “The question is shall I begin with Clonmacnoise or end with it…the stones there show an infinite superiority in design to other districts…Should I rise to Clonmacnoise or sink from it.” ~Margaret Stokes, in a letter to Rev. James Graves ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am deeply grateful to my advisor, Professor Lawrence Nees of the University of Delaware, for his insight, continuous support, and sage guidance throughout the course of my graduate studies and dissertation project. I am thankful for his encouragement to question disciplinary boundaries and the independence he gave me to develop my arguments, as well as the time he dedicated helping me to edit minute details and discuss big ideas. Thank you to Professor Lauren Petersen and Professor Denva Gallant of the University of Delaware, and Dr. Benjamin Tilghman of Washington College for their feedback and questions, which strengthened the arguments of my dissertation. I also want to thank the many other professors both at the University of Delaware and at other institutions that aided in the conceptualization of my project through coursework and encouraged my growth as a scholar and teacher throughout my academic career, especially, Professor Mónica Domínguez Torres, Professor David Stone, Professor Wendy Bellion, Professor Heather Pulliam, Professor Danielle B. Joyner, Professor James “Ted” Walker, and Professor Gary Huey. Thank you to Linda Magner for her boundless diligence, attention to detail, and help in all things concerning the department and university. Research for this project was undertaken in many a coffee shops, but also accomplished over the course of numerous study trips to Ireland and Scotland. It is my great pleasure to acknowledge the institutional support I received for my overall v doctoral studies and dissertation. My thanks to the University of Delaware’s Department of Art History, Office of Graduate and Professional Education, the Unidel Foundation, the Center for Material Culture Studies, and the Delaware Public Humanities Institute for supporting my research at museums, such as the National Museum of Ireland-Archaeology and the National Museum of Scotland, and allowing me to trek across cattle pastures and travel down all too narrow roads to reach remote monasteries and high cross sites. I am especially thankful to my travelling partner on the long road trips, driver and mother extraordinaire, Cindy Hutchison. My deep thanks to my fellow students at the University of Delaware and Philadelphia friends, whose camaraderie both in and outside the classroom over the course of my doctoral degree provided me with immeasurable support, especially Galina Olmsted, Elizabeth Simmons, Kristina Gray, Cai Pyle, Kevin Rowsey, Kate and Mike Habegger, Alba Campo Rosillo, Michele Frederick, and, fellow medievalists, Emily Shartrand and Christine Bachman. Finally, I want to express my love and gratitude to my parents, John and Cindy, for their endless support, guidance, and confidence in my abilities; to my siblings, Lauren and John, and best friend Jordan for their messages of encouragement and humor; and my partner Tobias who has kept me relatively sane, always laughing and thinking, well-fed and caffeinated, and loved throughout this process. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... xxiv ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... xxv Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Crossing the Border ................................................................................... 1 1.2 The Multivocality and Multifunctionality of the Irish High Cross ........... 6 1.3 The Case for Close Looking and Localized Context ............................... 11 1.4 Ard-Rí agus Cros-Ard: The Royal Patronage of High Crosses ............... 16 1.4.1 Early High Cross Scholarship and the Celtic Twilight ............... 21 1.4.2 Creating a Grand Narrative of Irish Art: The Dichotomy of Celtic Paganism and European Christianity as Represented by the High Cross ............................................................................. 30 1.4.3 The Davidic High Cross .............................................................. 41 1.4.4 “Around an Inscription,” Again: The Scholarship of Peter Harbison and other Patronage Studies ......................................... 43 1.5 The Intersection of Geography, Kingship, and High Crosses ................. 49 1.6 Complementary Studies ........................................................................... 52 1.7 On Dating Sources: Annals, Law Tracts, Treatises, Hagiography .......... 56 1.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 72 2 “OROIT DO RIG HERENN” (A PRAYER FOR THE KING OF IRELAND): COMMUNICATING AUTHORITY AND LEGITIMACY WITH THE CROSS OF THE SCRIPTURES ...................................................................... 76 2.1 What’s in a Name: The Form and Designation of the “Chrois na Screbtra” .................................................................................................. 77 2.2 The “Immovable Rock” (Ail Anscuichthe) .............................................. 85 2.3 A Witness of Legitimacy and Landmark of Primacy: The Historical Events of Flann Sinna’s Reign and Creation of the Cross of the Scriptures ................................................................................................. 90 vii 2.3.1 “Prayer for the King of Ireland:” Flann Sinna’s Place in the Hierarchy of Irish Kings .............................................................. 91 2.3.2 To Offer Thanksgiving for Victory: The Battle of Belach Mugna ........................................................................................ 101 2.3.3 The Cross on the Border: The High Cross as Marker of Territory and Compact .............................................................................. 115 2.4 Summary ................................................................................................ 137 3 KING, WARRIOR, AND JUDGE: THE MODELS OF HIGH-KINGSHIP ON THE CROSS OF THE SCRIPTURES .................................................... 139 3.1 Rig Herenn and Christus Rex ................................................................ 139 3.2 The Cross: Expressing Imperial Victory and Christian Kingship ......... 140 3.3 The Prestigious Crosses and Monuments of the Insular World ............ 154 3.4 The Scriptures ........................................................................................ 172 3.4.1 The Passion and Christian Kingship: The Western Face of the Cross of the Scriptures ............................................................... 172 3.4.2 What Has the Rig Herenn to do with Christ? ............................ 178 3.4.3 “Blessed Be the Lord My Strength, Which Teacheth My Hands to War:” David, The Old Testament Model of Kingship .......... 195 3.4.4 The Last Brithem ....................................................................... 209 3.5 Summary ...............................................................................................