Gender Education for Agricultural Extension Workers: “Gender-sensitive Curriculum” in Agricultural Technical and Vocational Education and Training (ATVET) Colleges in Ethiopia by SHIMAZU Yuki DISSERTATION Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Development GRADUATE SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT NAGOYA UNIVERSITY Approved by the Dissertation Committee: Shoko YAMADA (Chairperson) Aya OKADA Koichi USAMI Approved by the GSID Committee: March 6, 2017 Table of Contents Table of Contents..................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. vii List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... xi List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 1.1. Background of the Study .................................................................................................. 1 1.2. Problem Statement ........................................................................................................... 4 1.3. Objectives of the Study .................................................................................................... 7 1.4. Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 8 1.5. Research Methodologies .................................................................................................. 9 1.5.1. Procedure of the Fieldwork at ATVET Colleges ................................................. 11 1.5.1.1. Sample ...................................................................................................... 11 1.5.1.2. Data Collection and Data Analysis ........................................................... 13 1.5.2. Overview of the Samples .................................................................................... 16 1.5.2.1. Teachers .................................................................................................... 16 1.5.2.2. Students .................................................................................................... 19 1.5.3. Procedure of the fieldwork in Rural Areas .......................................................... 20 1.5.3.1. Samples .................................................................................................... 20 1.5.3.2. Data Collection and Data Analysis ........................................................... 22 1.6. Significance of the Study ............................................................................................... 23 i 1.7. Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................. 24 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................ 25 2.1. Agricultural Extension for Female Farmers ................................................................... 25 2.1.1. Importance of Female Farmers in Agriculture .................................................... 25 2.1.2. Agricultural Extension Approaches and Female Farmers ................................... 27 2.1.3. Target Group of Agricultural Extension and Female Farmers ............................ 30 2.1.4. Obstructive Factors for Female Farmers’ Access to Agricultural Extension ...... 31 2.2. Necessary Skills for Agricultural Extension Workers .................................................... 33 2.2.1. Soft skills and Hard skills .................................................................................... 33 2.2.2. Skills considered as Soft Skills ........................................................................... 34 2.2.3. Importance of Soft-skills for Agricultural Extension Workers............................ 35 2.3. Discussions on Curriculum ............................................................................................ 37 2.3.1. Definition of Curriculum ..................................................................................... 37 2.3.2. Levels of Curriculum .......................................................................................... 38 2.3.3. Categories of Operational Curriculum ................................................................ 40 2.3.3.1. Explicit Curriculum .................................................................................. 40 2.3.3.2. Implicit Curriculum .................................................................................. 41 2.3.3.3. Null Curriculum ....................................................................................... 42 2.3.4. Curriculum and Culture of Society ..................................................................... 43 2.3.4.1. Curriculum in the Social Reconstruction Ideology .................................. 45 2.3.4.2. The Role of Teachers in the Social Reconstruction Ideology .................. 47 2.4. Gender Attitude Formation ............................................................................................. 48 2.4.1. Social Learning Theory ....................................................................................... 48 2.4.2. Factors Affecting People’s Gender Attitude ........................................................ 50 ii 2.4.2.1. Personal Factors ....................................................................................... 50 2.4.2.2. Family Factors .......................................................................................... 51 2.4.2.3. Environmental Factor ............................................................................... 52 2.4.2.4. Educational Factor .................................................................................... 52 2.5. Gender Inequality and Women in Sub-Saharan Africa .................................................. 53 2.5.1. Socio-cultural Context and Gender Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa ............... 54 2.5.1.1. Welfare Approach ..................................................................................... 56 2.5.1.2. Equity Approach ....................................................................................... 57 2.5.1.3. Anti-Poverty Approach ............................................................................. 57 2.5.1.4. Efficiency Approach ................................................................................. 58 2.5.1.5. Empowerment Approach .......................................................................... 59 2.5.1.6. Gender Mainstreaming Approach ............................................................ 60 2.5.2. Colonization and Gender Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa ............................... 61 2.5.2.1. Western Feminism and Sub-Saharan Africa ............................................. 62 2.5.2.2. Capitalism and Women in Sub-Saharan Africa ........................................ 64 CHAPTER 3: THE CURRENT SITUATION IN ETHIOPIA .................................... 68 3.1. Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia .................................................................. 68 3.1.1. Overview of the Agricultural Extension System ................................................. 68 3.1.2. Organization of the Current Agricultural Extension System ............................... 73 3.2. TVET System in Ethiopia .............................................................................................. 74 3.2.1. The Government’s Focus on TVET .................................................................... 74 3.2.2. History of TVET in Ethiopia ............................................................................... 75 3.2.3. TVET System Reform ......................................................................................... 78 3.3. Education and Training at ATVET College .................................................................... 82 iii 3.3.1. Overview of ATVET College .............................................................................. 82 3.3.2. System of ATVET College .................................................................................. 85 3.3.3 DA Training Program at ATVET College ............................................................ 86 3.4. Current Gender Situation and Gender Strategies of the Ethiopian Government in Agricultural Extension .................................................................................................. 94 3.4.1. Current Gender Situation in Agricultural Extension ........................................... 94 3.4.2. Gender Strategies for Agricultural Extension ..................................................... 96 CHAPTER 4: FEMALE FARMERS AND AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE IN ETHIOPIA ............................................................................... 100 4.1. Agricultural Extension Services in Ambo District and Walmera District..................... 100 4.2. Female Farmers and the Agricultural Extension Services............................................ 105 4.2.1.