PROTRACTED CONFLICT IN MT. ELGON REGION (1963 - 2008): TOWARDS A MULTI-CAUSAL ANALYSIS CALEB MAIKUMA WAFULA C50/CTY/PT/21022/2010 A thesis Submitted to the Department of History and Political Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Peace and Conflict Studies at Kenyatta University JUNE 2019 DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work and has not been submitted for any other degree or examination in any other university. All sources in the thesis have been dully acknowledged. Signature………………………. Date: ………………….. Caleb Maikuma Wafula Department of History, Archelogy & Political Studies This thesis has been submitted with our approval as University supervisors. Signature……………………….. Date: ………………………… Dr. Joseph O. Wasonga Lecturer, School of Humanities and Social Sciences Kenyatta University Signature………………………. Date: ……………………….. Mr. Peter Mbae Lecturer, School of Humanities and Social Sciences Kenyatta University ii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to the survivors of the protracted Mt. Elgon Conflict who have lived to tell the story as it was. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The study is a result of encouragement and support from a diverse spectrum of actors, to whom I am greatly indebted. Foremost, thanks to the Almighty God who gave me life and commitment to accomplish this work. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisors: Dr. Joseph Wasonga and Mr. Peter Mbae, for their patient guidance throughout this grueling process. They gave me the space to work on my own, punctuated by their timely and precision-guided advice that spurred me to refine some of my arguments. I could not have had better supervisors. I am very grateful to field respondents in various capacities who willingly granted interviews and gave very valuable information. Special gratitude goes to my parents, who financed and closely monitored my study. For my sisters who empathized for me throughout my studies, your contribution is dearly acknowledged- you pushed me cheerfully on to complete this study. To all those who made an input to study, I say though your name may not appear here but deep in my heart it is written in bold and golden letters! In the truest sense, this study is the product of many sacrifices as much as my hard work. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ....................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .........................................................................................v OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS .......................................................................... ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................ xi ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................1 1.0 The Background to the Study ............................................................................1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................ 15 1.3 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................... 18 1.4 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................... 18 1.5 Research Questions ..................................................................................... 19 1.6 Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 19 1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study........................................................... 21 1.8 Literature Review ........................................................................................ 24 1.8.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 24 1.8.2 Theoretical Framework......................................................................... 24 1.8.2.1 Protracted Social Conflict Theory ................................................. 25 1.8.2.2 Conflict Trap Theory ..................................................................... 28 v 1.8.3 Empirical Review ................................................................................. 30 1.8.3.1 Ethnicity and Stereotyping as a Contributory factor to Mt Elgon Conflict ...................................................................................................... 30 1.8.3.2 Natural Resources as a Contributory factor to Mt Elgon Conflict . 35 1.8.3.3 Structural Factors as a Contributory factor in Mt Elgon Conflict . 39 1.8.4 Summary of Literature Review ............................................................ 44 1.9 Research Methodology and Design............................................................. 45 1.9.1 Data Sources ......................................................................................... 45 1.9.1.1 Secondary Data .............................................................................. 45 1.9.1.2 Primary Data .................................................................................. 46 1.9.2 Research Design ................................................................................... 47 1.9.3 The Target Population .......................................................................... 50 1.9.4 Interviews ............................................................................................. 52 1.9.5 Study Limitations ................................................................................. 60 1.9.6 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................... 63 1.9.7 Data Analysis ........................................................................................ 66 1.10 Chapters Outline ........................................................................................ 68 CHAPTER TWO: TRAJECTORY OF MT ELGON CONFLICT .......................69 2.0 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................69 2.2 Mt Elgon: Geographic Location, Ethnic and Tribal Composition .............. 70 2.2.1 The Sabaot People ................................................................................ 72 2.2.2 The Bukusu People ............................................................................... 74 2.3 A Synopsis of Protracted Conflicts in Mt Elgon ......................................... 77 2.3.1 The Colonial Legacy ............................................................................ 77 vi 2.3.2 Post Colonial Period ............................................................................. 81 2.3.2.1 Phase 1 of Land Resettlement ........................................................ 84 2.3.2.2 Phase II of Land Resettlement ....................................................... 86 2.3.2.3 Phase III of Land Resettlement ...................................................... 91 2.3.2.4 Formation of Sabaot Land Defense Force (SLDF) ....................... 95 2.3.2.5 Other Militias in Mt Elgon ........................................................... 103 2.3.2.6 Government Response - Operation Okoa Maisha ....................... 105 2.3.2.7 Mt Elgon Today ........................................................................... 107 2.4 Summary and Conclusion ......................................................................... 108 CHAPTER THREE: PROTRACTED CONFLICT IN MT. ELGON: TOWARDS A MULTI-CAUSAL ANALYSIS .......................................................................110 3.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................110 3.2 Ethnicity and Ethnic Stereotyping............................................................. 110 3.3 Natural Resources and Protracted Conflicts.............................................. 122 3.4 Structural factors and Protracted Mt Elgon Conflict ................................ 146 3.5 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................... 161 CHAPTER FOUR: CAUSES AND CONTINUATION OF MT ELGON CONFLICT: AN ANALYTICAL PERSPECTIVE ............................................163 4.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................163 4.2 Ethnicity and Ethnic Stereotyping............................................................. 164 4.3 Natural Resources and the Protracted Conflict ......................................... 194 4.4 Structural factors and the Protracted Mt Elgon Conflict ........................... 207 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................................217 5.0 Study Summary ..............................................................................................217 vii 5.2 Study Recommendations ........................................................................... 218 5.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 221 5.4 Reflections: Key Areas for Further Research ..........................................