THE HISTORY OF LARGE FEDERAL DAMS: PLANNING, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION IN THE ERA OF BIG DAMS David P. Billington Donald C. Jackson Martin V. Melosi U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation Denver Colorado 2005 INTRODUCTION The history of federal involvement in dam construction goes back at least to the 1820s, when the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built wing dams to improve navigation on the Ohio River. The work expanded after the Civil War, when Congress authorized the Corps to build storage dams on the upper Mississippi River and regulatory dams to aid navigation on the Ohio River. In 1902, when Congress established the Bureau of Reclamation (then called the “Reclamation Service”), the role of the federal government increased dramati- cally. Subsequently, large Bureau of Reclamation dams dotted the Western land- scape. Together, Reclamation and the Corps have built the vast majority of ma- jor federal dams in the United States. These dams serve a wide variety of pur- poses. Historically, Bureau of Reclamation dams primarily served water storage and delivery requirements, while U.S. Army Corps of Engineers dams supported QDYLJDWLRQDQGÀRRGFRQWURO)RUERWKDJHQFLHVK\GURSRZHUSURGXFWLRQKDVEH- come an important secondary function. This history explores the story of federal contributions to dam planning, design, and construction by carefully selecting those dams and river systems that seem particularly critical to the story. Written by three distinguished historians, the history will interest engineers, historians, cultural resource planners, water re- source planners and others interested in the challenges facing dam builders. At the same time, the history also addresses some of the negative environmental consequences of dam-building, a series of problems that today both Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers seek to resolve. While Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers funded this history, we gratefully acknowledge the work of the National Park Service, which managed the project. It may be possible that some federal dams warrant in- clusion in the National Historic Landmarks program, which the National Park Service administers. The appendices to this book include material that will en- able cultural resource managers to make informed decisions about the historic value of particular dams. :HKRSHWKDW\RX¿QGWKLVVWXG\DVXVHIXODQGLQIRUPDWLYHDVZHGR John W. Keys III Carl A. Strock Commissioner Lieutenant General, US Army Bureau of Reclamation Chief of Engineers iii PREFACE The concept for this study emerged in discussions between the under- signed in the early 1990s. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Reclamation agreed to fund the project with the costs equally divided. The Tennessee Valley Authority decided not to participate. Eventually, the Park Service awarded a contract to the Public Works Historical Society of the American Public Works Association. Dr. Howard Rosen, a distinguished engineering historian, then head of the Society, and lat- er at the School of Engineering at the University of Wisconsin, worked with us to assemble the team of historians necessary to ensure a quality product. David P. Billington, Gordon Y. S. Wu Professor of Engineering at Princeton University (and a distinguished engineering historian) became the principal investigator. Joining him were Professor Donald C. Jackson of Lafayette College, Professor Martin V. Melosi, Distinguished University Professor of History at the University of Houston; and Ann Emmons of History Research Associates, in Missoula de- veloped the material relating to evaluation guidelines and dam nominations for the National Historic Landmarks program. Acting as a peer reviewer was Donald J. Pisani, who holds the Merrick Chair of Western American History at the University of Oklahoma. Through a period of years, we met with Robie Lange, Don Pisani, and the team of authors to review drafts and discuss progress. The objectives of the study were twofold: a history of federal dam development, concentrating on key projects and river systems, and the drafting of documents to assist cultur- al resource managers and others interested in nominating dams to the National Historic Landmarks program (see appendices). The history is organized into chapters which sometimes include both the Corps and Reclamation, but each chapter is devoted mostly to the work of one or the other of the agencies. While the book is very much a collaborative effort, in general each author had the pri- PDU\UHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUVSHFL¿FFKDSWHUV0DUWLQ90HORVLIRUFKDSWHUVDQG David P. Billington for chapters 5, 6, and 8; and Donald Jackson for chapters 4 and 7. Professors Billington and Jackson shared responsibility for chapters 2 and 3. We acknowledge the support that the leadership in each agency has giv- en this project over the years. We also wish to thank the countless number of Corps and Reclamation rangers, cultural resource managers, dam operators, and others who have contributed their time and invaluable knowledge to the study. v Many reviewers at Reclamation, the Corps, and the National Park Service reviewed this manuscript as it was edited for publication, and their com- ments have been most helpful. Most editorial work was done by Brit Storey at Reclamation, with the particular assistance of Andrew Gahan and David Muñoz Last, it is worth noting that the manuscript for this book was completed before the World Commission on Dams studies on Grand Coulee were available for review. Brit Allan Storey, Ph.D. Martin A. Reuss, Ph.D. Senior Historian Senior Historian Bureau of Reclamation Water Resources U.S. Army Corps of Engineers vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7KLVZRUNEHQH¿WWHGJUHDWO\IURPWKHFRQWLQXDODVVLVWDQFHRI0DUWLQ Reuss, Senior Historian of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Brit Storey, Senior Historian of the Bureau of Reclamation. The provided us with both doc- uments and advice, which were essential to the project. We also appreciate the kind assistance from the personnel of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation at various dam sites. Robie Lange of the National Historic Landmarks Survey, National Park Service, provided essential guidance RQWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQRIWKHZULWLQJDQGZDVD¿QHWRXUOHDGHURQVHYHUDOGDPVWXG\ trips. J. Wayman Williams helped us to organize the work and produced vari- ous versions of the manuscript. He skillfully brought together the work of the three authors. Donald Pisani of the University of Oklahoma served as a consul- tant at a crucial period during which time he did much needed research, and most importantly helped us reorganize early drafts. He also read a complete draft and made valuable suggestions. Ann Emmons of Historical Research Associates, Inc., led a parallel effort to prepare guidelines for nominating dams as nation- DOKLVWRULFODQGPDUNVDQGFRPSOHWHG¿YHQRPLQDWLRQVVXSSRUWHGE\PXFKRIWKH material presented in this manuscript. David P. Billington, Jr., spent many hours in the National Archives ferreting out materials that enriched the manuscript greatly. This complex project was initially organized by Howard Rosen, Ph.D., then with the American Public Works Association (APWA), which administered the project. William J. Bertera, Dale Crandall, and Dennis H. Ross, P.E. in turn ably administered the contract for that association. Connie Hartline, of APWA, SURYLGHG¿QDOHGLWLQJRIWKHPDQXDOWRHQVXUHFRQVLVWHQF\RIOD\RXWDQGIRUPDW )LQDOO\WKHDXWKRUVZRXOGOLNHWRWKDQNWKHKXQGUHGVRILQGLYLGXDOV whom we have contacted over the course of this project that have provided com- mentary and insight into the history and importance of the various dams built by the federal government. Without their cooperation and assistance, this project could have been even more monumental than some of the dams described herein. David P. Billington, Princeton University Donald C. Jackson, Lafayette College Martin V. Melosi, University of Houston vii TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................iii 35()$&(.............................................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..................................................................................vii 7$%/(2)&217(176 ....................................................................................ix /,672)),*85(6..........................................................................................xvii &+$37(5³,03529,1*¶¶5,9(56,1$0(5,&$)5207+( REVOLUTION TO THE PROGRESSIVE ERA - RIVERS IN EARLY AMERICA.......................................................................................1 Rivers as Resource: The American Watershed System......................... 1 The Rise of an Industrializing Nation.....................................................2 7KH2ULJLQVRI)HGHUDO:DWHU5HVRXUFH3ROLF\ ......................................3 :$7(5/$:$1'7+(86(2)5,9(56 ...............................................5 Mills and Dams in the Early Industrial Era ............................................5 Water Law in the West ............................................................................7 The Western Setting................................................................................8 The California Doctrine: 1851-1886 .....................................................8 7+(86$50<&25362)(1*,1((56,17+( NINETEENTH CENTURY........................................................................ 11 7KH&RUSVDQGWKH)UHQFK(QJLQHHULQJ7UDGLWLRQ ................................ 11 Commerce, Navigation