The elusive nature of equity and quality in early childhood education: policy rhetoric, meanings and local perceptions in Nepal and Wisconsin, USA By: Sapna Thapa A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education The University of Sheffield Faculty of Social Sciences School of Education October 2015 Abstract This thesis explores the meanings of the terms ‘equity’ and ‘quality’ in Early Childhood Education (ECE) and argues that they are elusive concepts. I claim that these concepts are highly influenced by personalised perceptions, values and prevalent national socio-economic in relation with cultural and spatial disparities, in addition to their intersections with other aspects of diversity such as social class, ethnicity and gender. I address two questions, which aim to illuminate how meanings of ‘equity’ and ‘quality’ in ECE are created in the local language through the perceptions of practitioners and policymakers and the extent to which the rhetoric in policy texts reflects these meanings and perceptions. The thesis converges current debates with historical and sociological literature to showcase equity and quality challenges and issues in ECE in two diverse contexts: Wisconsin, USA and Nepal, developing a background for a cross-cultural study based on focus groups, elite interviews and desk reviews. Poststructuralist perspectives, based on an interpretive methodology using qualitative methods, inform the design of the research study. Critical analysis of data using a thematic coding analytical tool revealed several themes pertaining to the terms ‘equity’ and ‘quality’. These themes clarified local meanings and perceptions assigned to these terms in the two contexts. The findings disclose some local, national and supra national issues between policy rhetoric and locally and perceived realities related to equity and quality in ECE. The recommendations are to pursue issues of equity and quality in ECE through local voices in ways that are culturally appropriate and responsive to local contexts. In addition, policy makers need to look into local and cultural attitudes, perceptions, and childhood issues before following recommendations from larger and richer nations to expand ECE services. i Acknowledgements This thesis would not be possible without the support of a number of key people. I would like to express my gratitude towards the Doctoral team at the University of Sheffield, especially to my supervisor Dr. Elizabeth Wood, who gave me guidance, assurance and most of all encouragement to get it done. Dr. Rachael Levy and Dr. Jools Page have also been my constant pillars of support as well and without their faith in me, I would not have completed this thesis, so my gratitude to them as well. I am thankful to my wonderful husband Rabi Thapa and my two children Shehrish and Uzir for encouraging me to continue on this incredible life journey. Finally, I would like to thank all the participants who made time to meet me and share their profound stories, without which, this research and the entire journey would have been futile. ii Table of Contents Title Page Abstract………………………………………………………..........................................i Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………...ii Table of Contents :…………………………………………………………………..iii Chapter 1………………………………………………………1 Introduction 1.1 Outline of thesis and chapter summaries……………………..........2 1.2 Aims, Objectives: background, context and research problem……7 1.3 Theoretical basis: afno manchhe versus a poststructuralist position………………………………………………………………...13 1.4 Value Judgements: purpose, scope and significance of research…………………………………..............................................17 1.5 Conclusion………………………………………………………...20 Chapter 2………………………………………………………22 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………..22 2.2 Initiation of ECE in the United States and Nepal: a brief history…23 2.3 21st Century Dilemmas: equity and quality for all children……….33 2.4 Equity and quality in ECE in Nepal and Wisconsin: a comparative analysis…………………………………………………………....39 Chapter 3……………………………………………………. .51 Methodology and methods 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………..51 3.2 Methodological pathways and research design……………………51 3.2 a. Prologue: the ubiquity of value-laden methodology in social research………………………………………………………………52 3.2.b.Poststructuralist research and social inquiry……………………….....54 iii 3.2.c.Qualitative and interpretive research…………………………………..58 3.2 d. Critical theory, social inquiry and poststructuralist research…………60 3.3 Context and Participants…………………………………………...62 3.3.a. Urban contexts and participants within Kathmandu Valley……...…..62 3.3.b. Semi urban contexts in the outskirts of Kathmandu Valley……….....66 3.3 c. Participants: process of recruitment and methods applied for data collection…………………………………………………………….67 3.4 Methods: tools applied, research questions and field questions…..70 3.5 Data analysis: tools and process applied…………………………..78 3.6 Ethical Process…………………………………………………….80 3.7 Conclusions………………………………………………………..84 Chapter 4.……………………………………………………...86 Results 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………..86 4.2 Development of the analytical process…………………………….86 4.3Thematic coding and the critical paradigm: an argument………….92 4.4 Analysis of data using thematic coding: step by step process……..94 4.5 Final analysis based on identified themes…………...……………………………………………………102 4.5 a. Rights of the child in Nepal: Nepal Children’s Act 2048 (1992) vs. equity and quality in ECE…………………………………………102 4.5.b. Ethno-social, cultural, economical and spatial disparities…………105 4.5 c. Equity and quality in ECE curriculum………………………...…...108 4.5 d. Equity and quality through early childhood teacher education and training…………………………………………………………….110 4.5 e. Equity and quality in ECE based on gender…………………..……112 4.6 Conclusion………………………………………………………..115 Chapter 5……………………………………………………..116 Discussion 5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………116 5.2 A brief summary of the research…………………………………117 iv 5.3 Discussion of themes: deconstruction of ‘equity’ and ‘quality’ in ECE…………………………………………………………………..119 5.3 a. Children’s rights in Nepal and USA………………………………119 5.3 b. Ethno-social, cultural, economical and spatial disparities………...123 5.3 c. ECE curriculum…………………………………………………....126 5.3 d. Teacher education and training……………………………………129 5.3 e. Gender issues………………………………………………………133 5.4 Limitations, ethical dilemmas while researching equity and quality in ECE in Nepal……………………………………………….136 5.4 a. Structural limitations………………………………………………137 5.4 b. Philosophical limitations and ethical dilemmas…………………...139 5.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………….143 Chapter 6……………………………………………………..145 Conclusion 6.1 Deconstructing ‘equity’ and ‘quality’ in ECE…………………...145 6.2 Contribution to Knowledge……………………………………...150 Epilogue……………………………………………………………...153 References……………………………………………………155 Appendices…………………………………………………...185 Appendix 1 – Survey Form………………………………………….185 Appendix 2 – Request Letter for Centres and Principals……………187 Appendix 3 – Information Sheet in English and Nepali…………….189 Appendix 4 - Interview Questions: Focus group and Individual questions in English and Nepali……………………………………..197 Appendix 5 – Request letters for Elite Participants…………………201 Appendix 6 – Elite Interview questions……………………………..202 Appendix 7 – Representative data in Nepali (prior to translation)….204 Appendix 8 – Participant Consent form……………………………..205 Appendix 9 - Approved Ethics Application…………………………207 Appendix 10 - Letter of approval from Research services………….. 223 v Chapter 1 Introduction We are guilty of many errors and many faults, but our worst crime is abandoning the children, neglecting the fountain of life. Many of the things we need, can wait. The child cannot. Right now is the time his bones are being formed, his blood is being made, and his senses are being developed. To him we cannot answer ‘Tomorrow’, his name is today. -Gabriela Mistral 9 June 2015: The Nepal television news informs of the many thousands of people who are facing adversities in the wake of the devastating earthquakes that happened on the 25 April and 12 May 2015. I watch footage of young children in makeshift shelters, happy, smiling at the camera and playing in the debris and rubble, nonchalant about the harsh changes that they will have to bear in the coming days, months, or maybe even years. Images of dead children, and of ones who have lost their homes and families, are regular features in daily newspapers. Eyewitness accounts inform that about 18 infants and toddlers in just one village were buried under rubble whilst they took their afternoon nap. Many children have no access to any form of education, as school buildings and early childhood centres lie in ruins. News about vulnerable children being abducted by men posing as aid workers worries me. I listen to personal accounts of young infants and toddlers having been buried under rubble whilst they slept in the afternoon, their parents out in the fields. I wonder if my research regarding equity and quality in early childhood education in Nepal has any significance any more. Nevertheless, I write this thesis with hope that the darkness will dissipate and the children of Nepal will attend preschools and early childhood facilities again. I write with the hope that policy makers will understand that every child’s name is ‘today’ and make every effort to develop provisions that are equitable and of high quality for all children. I write with hope that every early childhood