Green neo-Nazism Examining the intersection of masculinity, far-right extremism and environmentalism in the Nordic Resistance Movement Maria Darwish Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy in Gender Studies Centre for Gender Research University of Oslo Blindern, Norway November 2018 © Maria Darwish 2018 Green neo-Nazism: Examining the intersection of masculinity, far-right extremism and environmentalism in the Nordic Resistance Movement http://www.duo.uio.no/ Trykk: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo Abstract This thesis aims to examine the intersections of right-wing extremism, masculinity and environmentalism. The latter is usually associated with the political left rather than the extreme right, and the feminine rather than the masculine. Research has shown that far-right subcultures are male dominated and defined in hyper-masculine terms. Nonetheless, the neo- Nazi group the Nordic Resistance Movement (NRM) emphasizes environmental protection and animal welfare in their political manifesto, which challenges our typical ideas of what far- right extremism looks like today. In this study, I ask how gender affects the NRM’s construction of identity, what neo-Nazi environmentalism is, and how the NRM relates to fascist and Nazi traditions in a contemporary context. To answer these questions, I have conducted a narrative analysis of the NRM’s podcast Nordic Frontier. I have relied on discursive problem analysis and role theory in my investigation. The analysis includes a contextual perspective, and therefore I also rely on historical literature. From the analysis, I construct two main lines of argumentation. First, I argue that there are gaps in the general understanding of neo-Nazi environmentalism. While some have discarded neo-Nazi environmentalism as a strategic effort to mask and expand racism and discrimination, I argue that neo-Nazi environmentalism is also a reflection of Nazi nature- ideology. I also find that neo-Nazi environmentalism is an expression of anti- cosmopolitanism, and a response to a fear of a changing social world. Additionally, neo-Nazi environmentalism serves as a new arena for proving manhood in a time where traditional manhood is challenged. Second, I argue that masculinity is an organizing principle for the NRM’s far-right resistance. I find that the NRM constructs an ideal masculine Self through othering, and by what I call ‘crisising’, which refers to the process of accentuating crisis tendencies by problematizing issues like immigration or social change. Drawing on historical references, canonical texts, biological reductionism and contemporary ideas, I find that the NRM has developed a masculinized environmentally oriented neo-Nazism. i ii Acknowledgements This thesis is a product of curiosity, optimism, yogic breaths and the support of many people. I extend my sincere gratitude to all of whom have believed in this project. Thank you, To the Centre for Gender Research in Oslo for the opportunity to do this research, and for the time, space and support that made this process easier. To my supervisor Øystein Gullvåg Holter for your open door, your patience, and for cheering me on. To my co-supervisor Michael Kimmel for inspiring this project and for making me see the bigger picture when I felt lost. To the STK Gender Studies Family – so much love to you amazing souls for creating a creative and challenging space in which I have grown and learned so much. To my cherished family and friends, without whom I could not manage. To all the remarkable people I have spent time with in Oslo, Gothenburg, New York and Lisbon during the past two years: The stimulating conversations about my project with each and every one of you has kept me going along this path. A last deep-felt thank you to my activist friends in all corners of the world. I dedicate this thesis to you. Keep moving. iii iv Table of contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iii Table of contents ........................................................................................................................ v 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Purpose and research questions .................................................................................... 2 1.2 Analysis, selection and limitations ............................................................................... 2 1.3 Overview of study ........................................................................................................ 5 2. Method and empirical material .............................................................................................. 6 2.1 Methodological choices .................................................................................................... 6 2.1.1 Clarifications ............................................................................................................. 7 2.2 Analytic tools ................................................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 Discursive approaches ............................................................................................... 8 2.2.2 Gender as an analytical tool ...................................................................................... 9 2.2.3 Role theory and symbolic interactionism ................................................................ 10 2.3 Overview of empirical data ............................................................................................ 10 2.3.1 Podcast as a medium ............................................................................................... 11 2.3.2 Nordic Frontier ........................................................................................................ 11 2.3.3 Additional sources ................................................................................................... 13 2.4 Ethics .............................................................................................................................. 14 3. Background and literary review ........................................................................................... 16 3.1 Historical background: Nazism ...................................................................................... 16 3.1.1 From Bismarck to The Third Reich ........................................................................ 17 3.1.2 Race ......................................................................................................................... 20 3.1.3 Gender ..................................................................................................................... 22 3.1.4 Nature ...................................................................................................................... 24 3.2 Neo-Nazism and the Nordic Resistance Movement ...................................................... 27 3.2.1 The Nordic Resistance Movement .......................................................................... 28 3.2.2 Meanings ................................................................................................................. 30 3.2.3 A new context .......................................................................................................... 31 3.2.4 Gendered identity .................................................................................................... 34 3.3 Gender and masculinities ............................................................................................... 34 v 3.3.1 Male bonding ........................................................................................................... 36 3.3.2 Exclusion, othering and racism ............................................................................... 36 3.3.3 The Protector role .................................................................................................... 37 3.3.4 Gender and nature ................................................................................................... 38 3.4 Environmentalism .......................................................................................................... 39 3.5 The crisis ........................................................................................................................ 42 3.5.1 A crisis of masculinity ............................................................................................. 42 3.5.2 Fascism’s crisis ....................................................................................................... 43 3.6 Chapter synopsis ............................................................................................................ 44 4. Empirical data ...................................................................................................................... 46 4.1 Nice guys ........................................................................................................................ 46 4.2 Protectors ........................................................................................................................ 47 4.2.1 Protecting the white race ........................................................................................