A Jus Post Bellum Analysis of Lethal Autonomous Weapons: Assessing the Importance of Human Interaction and Moral Repair to Peace Stephen Mark Arnott MA by Research University of York Politics July 2017 A Jus Post Bellum Analysis of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Abstract The future development of lethal autonomous weapons (LAWs) presents a significant shift in the way that war is conducted. The present debates surrounding the ethicality of implementing LAWs focus on a broad spectrum of concerns, yet currently fails to address the impact these weapons have on securing peace. As such, this paper rests within a jus post bellum framework, seeking to address how the implementation of LAWs affects the procurement of peace. This paper looks at the relational mechanisms of achieving peace, insofar as it is a product of human interaction and relational processes, and settles on two themes; the factors within war related to human action and interaction – collective experience, recognition of humanity, and the exhibition of mercy – and the factors after war related to moral repair –forgiveness, reconciliation, and truth telling. Through historical examples of human interaction, and a normative enquiry into the demands of repair, this paper finds that LAWs have a detrimental effect on the current methods of securing peace insofar as they are incapable of replicating avenues which humans currently participate in. As such, this paper highlights the trade-off between measures to prevent suffering and the necessity of moral repair, and contributes to the literature on jus post bellum more broadly by demonstrating the importance of repair post-conflict which has thus far been omitted. 2 A Jus Post Bellum Analysis of Lethal Autonomous Weapons List of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 2 List of Contents ..................................................................................................................... 3 Declaration ............................................................................................................................ 5 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 6 Part 1: Lethal Autonomous Weapons: An Overview ................................................................ 9 1. Framing the Debate: Why ‘LAWs’? ............................................................................10 2. Defining Machine Autonomy .....................................................................................12 3. The Properties of LAWs ..............................................................................................14 4. The Advantages of LAWs ............................................................................................17 5. A Background on LAWs: The Current Debates ...........................................................20 5.1 Responsibility ...........................................................................................................20 5.2 Respect and Lethal Application of Force .................................................................21 5.3 LAWs and Just War Theory ......................................................................................23 6. Jus Post Bellum and LAWs: The Ethical Context .........................................................25 6.1 The ‘Dependence Approach’: Responding to Criticism ...........................................25 6.2 The Continuity of Intentions ....................................................................................28 6.3 On Minimalist and Maximalist.................................................................................31 Part 2: The Value of Human Action and Interaction ...............................................................36 7. Experience of War ......................................................................................................38 7.1 Pre-War, Post-War, and the Myth of War Experience ............................................38 7.2 Ethical Limiters via Experience ................................................................................40 7.3 Experience as a Deterrent to Future Conflict ..........................................................44 7.4 Reforming War as a Response to Experience ..........................................................50 8. The Role of Human Interaction in War ......................................................................53 8.1 Fraternization ..........................................................................................................53 8.2 Recognition of Humanity .........................................................................................55 8.3 The Dehumanization of the Enemy .........................................................................59 9. Martial Virtues: The Warrior Spirit and the Uniqueness of Mercy ............................60 9.1 The Warrior Spirit ....................................................................................................61 9.2 On Mercy .................................................................................................................63 Part 3: Achieving Peace after War: LAWs as Wrongdoers and Moral Repair .........................67 3 A Jus Post Bellum Analysis of Lethal Autonomous Weapons 10. Forgiveness.................................................................................................................69 10.1 Background on Forgiveness .....................................................................................69 10.2 Forgiveness and LAWs .............................................................................................71 10.3 Forgiveness and Peace ............................................................................................75 10.4 Are Forgiveness and Jus Post Bellum Compatible? .................................................80 10.5 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................82 11. Reconciliation .............................................................................................................83 11.1 The Nature of Reconciliation ...................................................................................83 11.2 Reconciliation and LAWs .........................................................................................85 11.3 Reconciliation and Peace .........................................................................................88 11.4 A Cultural Critique: The Practice of Sulh .................................................................90 11.5 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................95 12. Truth Telling ...............................................................................................................97 12.1 The Conditions of Truth Telling ...............................................................................98 12.2 Truth Telling and LAWs ............................................................................................99 12.3 Truth Telling and Peace .........................................................................................100 12.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................103 Conclusion .........................................................................................................................105 Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................110 References ........................................................................................................................111 4 A Jus Post Bellum Analysis of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Declaration I declare that this thesis is a presentation of original work and I am the sole author. This work has not previously been presented for an award at this, or any other, University. All sources are acknowledged as References. 5 A Jus Post Bellum Analysis of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Introduction The development of lethal autonomous weapons (LAWs) presents a significant challenge to the way war is currently waged, and threatens to create a new paradigm due to the advancement of artificial intelligence (AI). Discussions have begun taking shape throughout a number of disciplines on the ethical challenges and benefits of LAWs. To date, many of the present discussions taking place concern the immediate benefits or shortcomings of LAWs, that is to say, what they bring to war in and of themselves. However, this paper focuses on the consequences of implementing LAWs, looking at the utility of human combatant behaviour in bringing about peace, both in actions during war and after, and asks; Do humans possess capabilities that are conducive to peace which cannot be replicated by LAWs? And if so, does this question the ethical permissibility of LAWs given the benefits to preventative suffering that they have the potential to generate? This paper looks specifically at relational aspects of peace, addressing the different ways and manifestations of how human interaction and recognition develops the conditions for sustainable peace. That is not to say that I view AI within LAWs to be fatally flawed, but rather I see the development of peace