„Politehnica“ University of Timisoara English Teaching Medium Year: 2nd Semester: 1st ARCHITECTURE Notes Sevastean Ianca & Mircea Georgescu 1 CHAPTER 1 ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTIONS - GENERALITIES 1.1 Definition The word “ARCHITECTURE” derives from the Greek word “architekton” (in Latin “architecton”) which means “construction master”. According to the Neologisms Dictionary [33], ARCHITECTURE is “the science and art of constructing buildings, according to some proportions and rules determined by the character and destination of the buildings”, but there are many other definitions given by dictionaries, specialists or even by outstanding personalities of human kind, definitions with more or less technical expressions and sometimes even “poetical”. Therefore, Novalis says that “architecture is solidified music”, V. Hugo writes that “architecture is the Great Book of Human Kind”, and G. Călinescu defines architecture as “one of the purest arts, next to music and poetry”. Actually, in relation to the other creation activities of humans, architecture is a more complex process that requires the knowledge and blending of the elements of science, technique and art. One of the modern definitions of architecture, [16], is that of “…synthesis discipline that succeeds to accomplish a consensus between function, structure and form within the constructed space, in which human life may develop in an organized manner”. As a science, architecture has suffered over time substantial transformations and completions, because of the progress of society, of the appearance of some modern technologies and of some construction materials with superior performances, as well as because of the appearance of some functional necessities far different in relation to those of the constructions of the past centuries. Therefore, if the distinctive sign of old architecture was monumentalism and decorative abundance, that of modern architecture is generally linear and volumetric simplicity, the expression of function and rationalism [37]. From here results the reluctance of certain people to consider contemporary architecture an artistic creation, although any construction, regardless of its destination and functionality is able to produce emotional reactions by plastic composition, by expression, by accomplishing a perfect symbiosis between aspect and functionality. With all the transformations that intervened over time regarding the content of architecture as science, the fundamental characteristics, the “laws” and basic principles of architecture are kept and remain true. Therefore the fundamental attributes of a construction that architecture must ensure are: utility, solidity and aesthetics [16]. These fundamental attributes, valid ever since antiquity evolved, though, along with society, with the material and spiritual demands of people, the extent to which they interfered in the conception and formation of buildings being strongly influenced by these demands. The neglect of some attributes and exaggeration of others led to the coming up of passing architectural trends, among which: “constructiveness”, “aestheticism”, “functionalism”, etc., trends by which there were created constructions that do not satisfy human expectations from all points of view. 2 The changes in architecture, considered by some “the most conservative of human arts and sciences [46]”, were, are and will be mainly quantitative and less qualitative and their premises have a main motivation - demographic growth and the general tendency of people to live in urban settlements and in conditions that are as comfortable as possible. 1.2 Short history of constructions evolution The beginning of the art and activity of construction is lost in time immemorial because “constructing” is the oldest conscious activity of man after the one of gathering food. The first “constructions” were of course the shelters that man has accomplished in order to protect himself against the elements of nature (cold, heat, wind, rain, etc.), against animals and even against his own kind. The first shelters were natural ones (grottos, caves), “improved” by the action of man but where the natural configuration of the land did not make possible the existence of caves, man built shelters like “nests”, “huts”, “tents” etc. using materials that were readily available, such as: branches and leaves, clay, stone, ice (the “igloos” from the frozen areas). Fig. 1.1 - Hut - shelter a, -b, -c- hut types; d - the construction of the hut [57] The huts, for example (fig. 1.1), were built thousands of years ago according to principles that were, for the better part, kept and are being used nowadays as well, by peoples in the undeveloped areas of the planet. Taking any form (conical, semispherical, cylindrical etc.), the huts were made by binding together wooden beams stuck into the ground and covering them with leaves, grass, animal skins, clay, etc. The evolution of society, science and technology, allowed the passing, over approximately 6 - 7.000 years, from the shelter - hut to the modern, collective shelter of the “skyscraper” type, passing through many intermediary phases of volumetric, dimensional and form conception (fig. 1.2). Therefore, using traditional materials (wood, stone, etc.) processed and combined with art, houses were built (family or collective ones) with more rooms with various functions, then the collective buildings of the “apartment house” type, built using classic materials and classic technologies (brick masonry, monolith concrete or prefabricated concrete), and nowadays very tall buildings, of the “tower” or “blade” type, built using materials with superior characteristics (steel, aluminum, glass, plastics etc.) and modern building technologies. 3 The shelter-buildings are the most widespread but represent only one of the functions that the existent constructions have, because the progress of society led, over the centuries, to a strong diversification of these functions. In this way, (see chap. 1.5) the public constructions (administrative, of culture and art, sportive, religious etc.) appeared, for transports, industrial, agricultural, military, special, engineering etc. the execution and functionality principles of which have also evolved along with society. Fig. 1.2 - The evolution of human shelter in time It is interesting to see the point of view of work [44], where Leland M. Roth presents a “diagram” of the main relative components of functionality for different types of buildings (fig. 1.3), in which the share of the two main components of the function of a building - utility and symbolism, is represented in percentage, marked by the diagonal from the figure. It is noticed (for instance) that if for factories and garages, utility represents approximately 90% and symbolism only 10%, at the other end there are monuments (commemorative constructions), whose utility is only of 10% while the symbolic function rises to 90%. Modern living buildings are situated at the middle, having the same proportion of utility and symbolism. Fig. 1.3 - Utility - symbol ratio for different types of buildings 4 The diagram also highlights the evolution in time of the ratio between the two components of the function in the case of libraries, for which the ratio between utility and symbolism decreased dramatically during approximately 100 years because of the appearance of some more modern and efficient ways of information than reading. Obviously, the presented diagram refers to the present times, for any past or future period this being able to have another aspect. Likewise, this kind of diagram may look different for other types of buildings, respectively for different inhabited areas of the planet. Some of the antique buildings made by humans have resisted against the action of time for thousands of years because of their massiveness, because of the durability of the material of which they were made of (natural stone) and because of the applied execution technologies (technologies that are not completely known, some of them are only supposed). Among the constructions that attest by their existence after millenniums since they were built, the art and skill of the ancient civilizations, the most representative are: - the pyramids, the aqueducts, the temples, etc. (fig. 1.4). - pyramids - monumental funerary constructions, built 2500-2700 years BC had the function of “houses for the afterlife” of pharos and kings of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, Mexico, etc. The most famous pyramids are those of Egypt, on the valley of the Nile, among which the highest is the pyramid of Cheops (148 m high, 232 m base side, approximately 6.5 million tons in weight). - aqueducts - antique constructions made of stone (discovered in Italy, France, Spain, etc.) having the utilitarian function of water adduction, made under the form of arcades (generally with semicircular arches) rested on “piers” and developed on one or more levels. - temples - religious constructions, with the symbolic function of “house” for god and worship place for its followers, made of stone, with the structure formed of walls, columns and systems of girders. The temples (massive in ancient Egypt, or with more ample spaces in ancient Rome and Greece) constituted one of the most important architectural programs of antiquity because of the huge influence of religion over the antique people and, as consequence, because of the economic power of the religious system of all times. The examples of constructions given above, famous through their architectonic value and