Placing Women in the History of Psychology The First American Women Psychologists Laurel Furumoto Wellesley College Elizabeth Scarborough State University of New York College at Fredonia ABSTRACT." This article presents an account of the first Traditional history has been written and interpreted by men in American women psychologists. The article provides data an androcentric frame of reference; it might quite properly be on the origins, education, marital status, and careers of described as the history of men. The very term "Women's His- the 22 women who identified themselves as psychologists tory" calls attention to the fact that something is missing from in the first edition of American Men of Science. Further, historical scholarship. (p. xiv) it explores how gender shaped their experience in relation Beyond calling attention to what is missing from the to educational and employment opportunities, responsi- history of psychology, this article begins to fill the gap by bilities to family, and the marriage versus career dilemma. sketching an overview of the lives and experiences of those Illustrations are drawn from the lives of Mary Whiton women who participated in the development of the dis- Calkins, Christine Ladd-Franklin, Margaret Floy Wash- cipline in the United States around the turn of the century. burn, and Ethel Puffer Howes. Sources used include ar- First, we identify early women psychologists. Second, we chival materials (manuscripts, correspondence, and insti- describe the women and note some comparisons between tutional records) as well as published literature. The article them and men psychologists. And last, we discuss wom- calls attention to the necessity of integrating women into en's experiences, focusing on how gender influenced their the history of the discipline if it is to provide an adequate careers. understanding of psychology's past. Identifying Early Psychologists In 1906 James McKeen Cattell published the first edition Women psychologists have been largely overlooked in of American Men of Science (Cattell, 1906), a biographical histories 0fthe discipline. This is so despite the early par- directory containing more than 4,000 entries. This am- ticipation and contributions of women to American psy- bitious project provided for the first time a comprehensive chology from its beginnings as a science. Here we offer a listing of all individuals in North America who had "car- preliminary account of the first American women psy- ried on research work in the natural and exact sciences" chologists, describing them and the manner in which (p. v). Inclusion in the directory required that a person gender shaped their experiences.l must have done "work that has contributed to the ad- As early as 1960, the history of psychology was iden- vancement of pure science" or be "found in the mem- tified as a "neglected area" (Watson, 1960). Watson's call bership lists of certain national societies" (p. v). Cattell for attention was followed by a dramatic surge of interest himself was a highly visible and influential member of in historical scholarship (Watson, 1975). In subsequent the psychological establishment, centrally involved in years, history of psychology has developed as a vigorous founding and controlling the early direction of the Amer- specialty field. However, new scholarship has paid scant ican Psychological Association (APA). Not surprisingly attention to women in the discipline. To date, work that then, among the national societies he surveyed was the has been done on women, whether presented in published APA, which in 1906 was 14 years old and had about 175 sources or in delivered papers, has been limited in scope members. and descriptive rather than interpretive. It consists gen- erally of efforts to identify some prominent women in The authors contributed equally; listing is in alphabetical order. We thank Michael M. Sokal especially for his extensive comments on a draft of previous generations and to provide information about the article. their achievements (see Bernstein & Russo, 1974; This research was supported in part by grants from the Research O'Connell, 1983; O'Connell & Russo, 1980; Russo, 1983; Foundation of State University of New York and State College at Fredonia Stevens & Gardner, 1982). Furthermore, the number of to Elizabeth Scarborough (Goodman) and from the Brachman-Hoffman women mentioned in even the most recently published Small Grant Program of Wellesley College to Laurel Furumoto. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Eli- history of psychology textbooks is astonishingly small (see zabeth Scarborough, Department of Psychology, State College at Fre- Goodman, 1983). donia, Fredonia, New York 14063. Omission of women from history is not unique to psychology. As Gerda Lerner (1979), an American his- t A comprehensive study of the lives, contributions, and experience of early women psychologists will be published by Columbia University torian well known for her work in women's history, Press under the title Untold Lives: The First Generation of American pointed out, Women Psychologists. January 1986 • American Psychologist 35 Copyright 1986by the AmericanPsychological Association, Inc. 00034)66X/86/$00.75 VoL 41, No. I, 35--42 Table 1 Characteristics of Women Psychologists Listed in American Men of Science, 1906 Birth Name year Subject of researcha Baccalaureate degree Doctoral degree Bagley, Mrs. W. C. (Florence Winger) 18"74 Fechner's color rings Nebraska 1895 Comel11901 c Calkins, Prof. Mary Whiton 1863 Association of ideas Smith 1885 Harvard 1895 n Case, Prof. Mary S(ophia) 1854 None given Michigan 1884 No graduate study Franklin, Mrs. Christine Ladd 1847 Logic, color vision Vassar 1869 Hopkins 1882 a Gamble, Prof. E(leanor) A(cheson) 1868 Smell intensities Wellesley 1889 Cornel11898 McC(ullough) Gordon, Dr. Kate 1878 Memory and attention Chicago 1900 Chicago 1903 Gulliver, Pres. Julia H(enrietta) 1856 Dreams, subconscious self Smith 1879 Smith 1888 Hinman, Dr. Alice H(amlin) 1869 Attention and distraction Wellesley 1893 Cornel11897 Martin, Prof. Lillien J(ane) 1851 Psychophysics Vassar 1880 Gottingen 1898 c McKeag, Prof. Anna J(ane) 1864 Pain sensation Wilson 1895 Pennsylvania 1900 Moore, Mrs. J. Percy (Kathleen Carter) 1866 Mental development Pennsylvania 1890" Pennsylvania 1896 Moore, Prof. Vida F(rank) 1867 Metaphysics Wesleyan 1893 Cornel11900 Norsworthy, Dr. Naomi 1877 Abilities of the child Columbia 1901 Columbia 1904 Parrish, Miss C(elestia) S(usannah) 1853 Cutaneous sensation Cornelt 1896 No graduate study Puffer, Dr. Ethel D(ench) 1872 Esthetics Smith 1891 Radcliffe 1902 Shinn, Dr. M(ilicent) W(ashburn) 1858 Development of the child California 1880 California 1898 Smith, Dr. Margaret K(eiver) 1856 Rhythm and work Oswego Normal 1883 e Zurich 1900 Smith, Dr. Theodate (Louise) 1860 Muscular memory Smith 1882 Yale 1896 Squire, Mrs. C(arrie) R(anson) 1869 Rhythm Hamline 1889 Cornel11901 Thompson, Dr. Helen B(radford) 1874 Mental traits of sex Chicago 1897 Chicago 1900 Washburn, Prof. Margaret F(Ioy) 1871 Space perception of skin Vassar 1891 Cornel11894 Williams, Dr. Mabel Clare 1878 Visual illusions Iowa 1899 Iowa 1903 Note. Names are given as they appeared in the directory. 9Major topics through 1906. ~ Positions listed in American Men of Science, first and third editions. = Doctoral study, no degree granted, a Doctoral program completed, no degree granted due to prohibition against women. 9Program of study less than 4-year course. Although neither the title nor Cattell's preface sug- psychologists for whom basic biographical information gests it, his directory of "men of science" did, in fact, is available. This makes it possible to analyze certain as- include some women (see Rossiter, 1974). Among these pects of their lives and compare them with their male women scientists, a group of 22 identified themselves as cohort. psychologists either by field or by subject of research (see These women shared with men psychologists the ex- Table 1). Our analysis is based on biographical infor- perience of being pioneers in what Cattell called "the mation on these women, who constituted 12% of the 186 newest of the sciences" (Cattell, 1903a, p. 562). Women psychologists listed in the directory. It should be noted participated from the beginning in the evolution of the that omitted from the directory were five women who new discipline. They began joining the national profes- held APA membership in 1906: Elizabeth Kemper sional association soon after it was formed in 1892 and Adams, Margaret S. Prichard, Frances H. Rousmaniere, presented papers at annual meetings. They published Eleanor Harris Rowland, and Ellen Bliss Talbot. Con- regularly in the fledgling journals, contributing original versely, nine women were listed who did not belong to research, reviews, and commentaries. The group included the APA: Bagley, Case, Gulliver, V. F. Moore, Parrish, several who were prominent and influential (e.g., Mary Shinn, and Squire, plus McKeag and Williams (who Calkins, Christine Ladd-Franklin,2 Lillien Martin, and joined after 1906). Presumably those who did not belong Margaret Washburn) and others who were recognized by to the APA were included because they had made research their peers as notable contributors (e.g., Kate Gordon, contributions to the field. The group we are considering Milicent Shinn, and Helen Thompson). Included also, therefore omits a few women who clearly qualified for however, were women whose careers were short lived, inclusion in American