i | Page Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf Institut für allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft Modification, Secondary Predication and Multi-Verb Constructions in Lakota Inaugural dissertation for the conferment of the grade of Doctor of Philosophy (Dr. phil.) by the Faculty of Arts and Humanities Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf presented by Jan Ullrich Supervisor: Robert D. Van Valin, Jr. Düsseldorf, Fall 2018 Page | ii CONTENTS Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations xi Sources of data xiii List of Figures xv List of Tables xvii 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Goals 1 1.2. Theoretical framework (RRG) 3 1.2.1. The layered structure of the clause 5 1.2.2. Nexus relations and juncture types 11 1.2.3. Semantic Roles and Grammatical Relations 14 1.3. Literature overview 17 1.3.1. Ad-nominal Modification 17 1.3.2. Derived modifiers 19 1.3.3. Secondary predication 21 1.3.4. Multi-verb constructions 23 1.3.5. Passive voice 25 1.4. Sources of data and methodology 26 2. THE LAKOTA LANGUAGE 33 2.1. Siouan language family (classification) 33 2.2. Dialects and geography 36 2.3. Basic typological description 40 2.4. Phonology and orthography 41 2.5. Morphophonemics 44 2.5.1. Stress 44 2.5.2. Ablaut 45 iii | Page 2.5.3. Truncation 47 2.5.4. Palatalization 49 2.5.5. Nasalization spread 50 2.6. Verbal morphology – basic sketch 51 2.6.1. Personal affixes (split intransitivity) 51 2.6.2. Causatives 56 2.6.3. Datives 57 2.6.4. Possessive 59 2.6.5. Reflexive 60 2.6.6. Reciprocal 61 2.6.7. Indefinite object 61 2.6.8. Locatives 62 2.6.9. Instrumentals 63 2.7. Articles 64 3. STATIVE VERBS AS AD-NOMINAL MODIFIERS AND PREDICATES68 3.1. Introduction 68 3.2. Noun + stative verb as a complex predicate 68 3.2.1. Introduction 68 3.2.2. Prosodic properties of N+SV 72 3.2.3. Syntactic analysis of N+SV 78 3.3. Compounded N+SV 81 3.4. Stative verbs as attributive modifiers 86 3.4.1. Attributive modifiers internal to marked RPs 86 3.4.2. Attributive modifiers internal to unmarked RPs 90 3.4.3. Bare RPs 94 3.5. SV as a simple predicate (N + DET + SV) 99 3.6. Body part Ns with stative predicates 105 3.7. Stative verb as a predicate in relative clauses and clefts 116 3.8. Summary 119 Page | iv 4. STATIVE VERBS AS SECONDARY PREDICATES 122 4.1. Introduction 122 4.2. Depictives with intransitive primary predicates 125 4.3. Depictives with transitive primary predicates 128 4.4. Comparison of SPCs and complement clauses 132 4.5. Stative verbs that can function as secondary predicates (preliminary list) 135 4.6. Negated secondary predicates 137 4.7. Depictives with event quantification (šna, s’a) 140 4.8. Intervention between secondary and primary predicates 141 4.9. Numerals, quantifiers and partitives as depictives 144 4.10. Resultative secondary predicates 148 4.11. Complex secondary predicates 152 4.12. Primary predicates that require a secondary predicate 155 4.13. Nouns as secondary predicates 160 4.14. Circumstantials 162 4.15. Secondary predicates expressing non-referential nouns 163 4.16. Comparison of secondary predicates with predicates and attributives 164 4.17. Summary 167 5. MODIFIERS DERIVED FROM STATIVE VERBS 169 5.1. Introduction 169 5.2. Modifiers derived from truncating stative verbs (héčhel) 176 5.3. Morphology of derived modifiers 181 5.3.1. Morphophonemics 181 5.3.2. Intensification of derived modifiers 184 5.3.3. Continuative with derived modifiers 188 5.3.4. Reduplication of derived modifiers 190 5.3.5. Locatives and derived modifiers 192 5.4. Negation marking on derived modifiers 194 5.5. Habituality marking on derived modifiers 196 v | Page 5.6. Resultative modifiers derived from stative verbs 198 5.7. Predicates that require modifiers 199 5.8. Serialized and multiple derived modifiers 201 5.9. Complex derived modifiers 206 5.10. Participant and event orientation of derived modifiers 221 5.11. RP-external ad-nominal modification 232 5.12. Subject-object orientation of derived modifiers 237 5.13. Comparison of DMs, attributive and predicative stative verbs 239 5.14. Free adjuncts in LDP and RDP 246 5.15. Other syntactic functions of -ya forms 249 5.16. Derived modifiers in expressions of change of state 252 5.17. Prosodic properties of constructions with DMs 258 5.18. Semantic map of morphological marking of SPs and DMs 260 5.19. Summary 263 6. WÓ- NOUNS IN PREDICATION AND DERIVED MODIFICATION 268 7. ACTIVE VERBS FUNCTIONING AS SPS AND DMS 273 7.1. Active verbs as Secondary Predicates 273 7.2. Active verbs as SPs and complement clauses - comparison 283 7.3. Derived modifiers based on active verbs 289 8. PRE-MODIFICATION 301 8.1. Nouns as ad-nominal pre-modifiers 302 8.2. Stative Verbs as a classificatory ad-nominal pre-modifiers 307 8.3. Stative Verbs as pre-modifiers of Stative Verbs 309 8.4. Active verbs as ad-nominal pre-modifiers 311 8.5. Nouns as pre-modifiers of Active Verbs 312 8.6. Numerals as pre-modifiers of active verbs 320 8.7. Adverbs as pre-modifiers of Ns 322 9. THE PASSIVE VOICE AND MODIFICATION 324 Page | vi 9.1. The status of the passive agent in the Lakota passive 324 9.2. Passive participle as an RP-internal modifier 336 9.3. Passive as ad-core modifier 337 10. MULTI-VERB CONSTRUCTIONS WITH ACTIVE VERBS 340 10.1. Introduction 340 10.2. Simultaneous Predicate Constructions and Purpose Constructions 344 10.2.1. The role of ablaut in SimPCs and PCs 344 10.2.2. The role of truncation 350 10.2.3. Pitch contour of SimPCs and PCs 356 10.2.4. The role of lexical aspect of V2 361 10.2.5. Lexical aspect and travel verbs as V2 365 10.2.6. Transportation verbs in multi-verb constructions 367 10.2.7. Role of reduplication in multi-verb constructions 372 10.2.8. Vertitive travel verbs as V2 373 10.2.9. Lexical aspect and vertitives in traditional research literature 375 10.2.10. Intervention with PP and DM 376 10.2.11. Position of the RP cross-referenced with subject 377 10.2.12. V1 serialization in SimPC 379 10.2.13. Negation of V1 382 10.2.14. Habituality marking (šna, s’a) 384 10.2.15. Continuative suffix –hAŋ 385 10.2.16. Defining properties finalized 386 10.3. Directional compound verbs 388 11. COMPARISON OF SPC AND SIMPC 395 12. LEXICALIZED DERIVED MODIFIERS OF MIXED ORIGIN 398 13. FINAL CONCLUSIONS 402 14. REFERENCES 413 vii | Page Abstract Modification, secondary predication and Multi-Verb Constructions in Lakota by Jan Ullrich Doctor of Philosophy in General Linguistics Heinrich Heine Universität, Düsseldorf Professor Robert D. Van Valin, Jr., Supervisor This thesis is the first study of secondary predication in a Siouan language, specifically Lakota. It offers analysis on the syntactic, morphological and semantic level in the paradigm of Role and Reference Grammar. A thorough analysis of secondary predication requires a good understanding of several other morpho-syntactic phenomena. Thus, the first part of this study is concerned with Lakota stative verbs and offers a comprehensive description of all syntactic constructions in which stative verbs function; specifically simple predication, complex predication and ad-nominal modification. The thesis introduces a novel approach to the analysis of constructions in which a stative verb (SV) is adjacent to a N, and shows that the stative verb is not a modifier, for which it has been taken in the research literature so far, but instead it forms a complex predicate with the noun. The SV can be a modifier only when it is internal to a reference phrase (RP), which requires the N+SV structure to be modified with a determiner (with the exception of plural RPs cross-referenced to the object argument). The SV can be a predicate only when the N and SV are separated by a definite article, partitive, quantitative or another word that can function as their separator (excluding indefinite articles). The chapter on stative verbs also makes important discoveries about the coding of the possessor of inalienable nouns, about linking of RPs cross-referenced with core arguments and about bare nouns. The chapter on secondary predication includes a detailed discussion of the lexical and morphosyntactic composition of secondary predication. Under certain morphosyntactic conditions, there is a structural ambiguity involving Subject oriented Secondary Modification, Object oriented Secondary modification and Clausal complementation. Secondary predicates are structurally divided into simple, serialized and complex. I claim that Lakota has been undergoing diachronic development from one preferred strategy of expressing depictive and resultative content to another, which is supported by the fact that the number of stative verbs that can function as secondary predicates has been decreasing during the time frame of text documentation (between 1840 and 2018). Page | viii The new strategy for expressing depictive and resultative content is one that involves modifiers derived primarily from stative verbs, but also from active verbs as well as from nouns, numerals and quantitatives. Within the RRG framework these modifiers are given the orientation neutral term ‘[derived] modifier’ (DM). They can function as ad-core modifiers (traditionally ‘adverbs’), ad-argument and ad-nominal modifiers (traditionally ‘adjectives’) and rarely as ad-nuclear modifiers (traditionally ‘adjectives’). Much attention is given to the morphophonemic properties of DMs as well as their orientation (to subject or object, to event or participant), to different types of DMs, and DMs with various types of lexical composition, such as modifiers derived from stative verbs, active verbs, nouns, wo- nouns, numerals, quantifiers, from passive voice construction, etc.