To the Indian Manner Born: How English Tells its Stories Nacido a la manera de la India o de cómo el inglés cuenta sus historias To imagine a language is to imagine a form of life. – Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations § 19 K. NARAYANA CHANDRAN Professor of English, School of Humanities at the University of Hyderabad, Prof. C R Rao Road, Central University P.O. (India-500 046). Dirección de correo electrónico: [email protected] ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8878-772X Recibido: 28/9/2015. Aceptado: 1/6/2017. Cómo citar: Chandran, K. Narayana, «To the Indian Manner Born: How English Speaks its Stories», Hermēneus. Revista de traducción e interpretación, 20 (2018): 87-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24197/her.20.2018.87-104 Abstract: Writing from outside the Anglo-American world is appreciated largely for the social life of English in worlds elsewhere, the linguistic oddities of its non-native cast of characters that spot poor translations. While English is easily granted inordinate powers of cultural assimilation, the languages of erstwhile colonies, the bhashas of India for example, from which this ‘translation’ presumably takes place, are seen to be rather weak and ill-equipped to meet the challenging demands of western narrative gambits. This essay offers three concrete examples of English fiction where its Indian writers afford us glimpses of a phenomenon critics have barely begun to notice. The passages examined here show how the bhashas sound differently when cast in English, or how English begins to breathe an unmistakable Indian ethos and idiom. When the Indian bhashas and English so happen together, there is no discrete language from which or into which translation occurs. It is evident that the writers here are no ‘Indianizers’ of a language whose fortunes now are global in reach and affect. For readers in India, English is still a bhasha- in-the-making, which is neither set in a ‘colonial’ far away and long ago, nor yet within current precincts of some ‘postcolonial’ felicity. If the efforts of these writers at resisting translation win, it is because they have asserted their right to imagine a language as a form of global life toward which English has taken them. Keywords: translation; English bhāsha [language]; R. K. Narayan’s “A Horse and Two Goats”; Raja Rao’s The Cat and Shakespeare: A Tale of Modern India; Krishna Baldev Vaid’s “Bimal in Bog”. Resumen: Escribir desde fuera del mundo angloamericano es algo que se aprecia por la vida social que se refleja de mundos ajenos y las rarezas lingüísticas de su elenco de personajes no nativos que producen traducciones muy pobres. Mientras al inglés se le concede con facilidad un poder arrollador de asimilación cultural, las lenguas de las antiguas colonias, los bhashas o lenguajes de India, por ejemplo, desde las cuales se supone que se produce este tipo de HERMĒNEUS, 20 (2018): págs. 87-104 ISSN: 2530-609X 88 K. Narayana Chandran traducciones, se las considera débiles y no preparadas para afrontar las exigentes desafíos del los juegos narrativos occidentales. Este artículo ofrece tres ejemplos concretos de ficción en inglés en los cuales sus autores indios nos proporcionan ciertos vistazos de un fenómeno del cual la crítica apenas ha empezado a percibir. Los ejemplos que se examinan en este texto nos muestran como los bhashas suenan diferentes cuando se proyectan en el inglés, o cómo el inglés comienza a adquirir una forma de ver de la vida y un estilo inequívocamente indios. Cuando los bhashas indios y el inglés se combinan al mismo tiempo, no se puede hablar de una lengua específica desde la cual o hacia la cual se traduzca. Resulta evidente que estos escritores no indianizan una lengua de alcance y dominio mundial hoy en día. Para los lectores indios, el inglés es todavía un bhasha en proceso de formación, que ni pertenece solo al lejano pasado colonial, ni todavía ha echado raíces plenas en nuestro presente, todo nuestro él, poscolonial y supuestamente pleno. Si los esfuerzos de estos escritores de resistirse a recurrir a la traducción prosperan, sería porque han afianzado su derecho a imaginar un lenguaje que les conecte con el mundo global al que el inglés les ha introducido. Palabras clave: traducción, bhasha inglés, “A Horse and Two Goats” de R. K. Rarayan; The Cat and Shakespeare: A Tale of Modern India de Raja Rao; “Bismal in Bog”, de Krishna Baldev Vaid. Summary: Introduction; 1; 2; 3; 4; works cited. Sumario: Introducción; 1; 2; 3; 4; referencias. INTRODUCTION Once we have heard all the interesting stories of the writers’ world at play and at work, we still wonder why their characters speak the peculiar language they do, unmindful of those niceties and proprieties of textbook linguistics. When such stories become brilliant articulations of a new language in the world, we ought to seek new dimension for such time- worn concepts as bilingualism, translation, calque, etc. The strange case of such writers, especially in English-speaking multilingual worlds, is very rarely recorded in literary histories, much less in critical scholarship, unless the writers themselves volunteer to elaborate on this unique experience of imagining their varied forms of language in fiction. For a sample, here is Geetanjali Shree, an Indian writer, speaking about her bilingualism: [I am b]ilingual from childhood in a formerly colonized and now formally decolonized part of the world. [Mine] is no ordinary bilingualism. It is not about to-ing and fro-ing from one language to another [...]. It is about to- ing and fro-ing between one mixed, hotchpotch, khichdi language to another mixed, hotchpotch khichdi language! English-Hindi-dialects mix to dialects-Hindi-English mix! Given that each constituent of these mixes brings along whole worlds and views, what can we seem but intensely confused people? (2008: online) HERMĒNEUS, 20 (2018): págs. 87-104 ISSN: 2530-609X To the Indian Manner Born: How English Speaks its Stories 89 Writers like Shree would seem less “confused” and confusing to us if we were willing to grant that they can not only see language forming and filling their worlds as beings that reflect the complex fate of linguistic history, but also can anticipate how readers, writers, commentators on this phenomenon might be willing to see themselves as part of that historical process. Shree sees her bilingualism in this light. It sees languages erupting into each other, unforeseen ways sudden languages happen at once.1 “The eruption of other languages into an English-language text …,” observes Tabish Khair, is a complex issue and one that differs from context to context” (2009: 148). Khair’s immediate context is Salman Rushdie but his larger concerns are both creative and critical because he is both a writer of fiction and a literary critic. Most recent studies of Indian English and Indian-English literature seem equally concerned with this “eruption” of our languages into English, a phenomenon that sometimes tends to get needlessly confused with the issues of the continuing legitimacy and uses of English in India. Questions of ‘Standard,’ ‘Dominance,’ and the imperialist power and provenance of English as language and ideology, within India and across an increasingly globalizing world, seem to becloud the scene. I shall begin with two random samples that address these issues politically. First, we have Rashmi Sadana’s observation on the politics of “deterritorialization” of English by writers from India now belonging diasporically to Anglo-American worlds: The English language becomes a convenient medium by which this knowledge [of and from India] is transferred. What gets lost between the politics of encounter and newer transnational frameworks is the way in which English has been transformative for Indians, how the language has been about their modernity but also how English has been transformed by Indians and their other languages in the process. English exists in the world differently now that it is also an Indian language. […] To recognize that English emerges and exists alongside other languages in an intensely 1 For somewhat similar perplexities and challenges of multilingual upbringing and creation we have very distinguished precedents. One such is the life of Elias Canetti whose remarkable panache to “weave in and out of so many languages” is the subject of Marjorie Perloff’s essay on The Tongue Set Free (1999), the first volume of the Bulgarian writer’s autobiography in English translation (2016: 102). HERMĒNEUS, 20 (2018): págs.87-104 ISSN: 2530-609X 90 K. Narayana Chandran multilingual society is to re-politicize and re-territorialize Indian novels rather than read them merely in their transnational ‘isolation’ (Sadana, 2012: 157-158). Srinivas Aravamudan’s Guru English examines this deterritorialization of English in the specific context and character of Indian/Hindu spiritualism abroad both in its reach as transnational cosmopolitanism and as a commercial marketable surplus. What might be of immediate interest to us, however, are his introductory remarks on the four functions of English identified by sociolinguists as the instrumental, regulative, interpersonal, and innovative and how English manages to break past such functions while traversing foreign shores. “To the extent that the English language is seen reductively as the expression of upper class status and perspective alone,” observes Aravamudan, “its capacity to represent the larger social whole is found lacking. Appearing to its speakers as a combination of prestige and disparagement, English represents a complicated status for South Asians that linguists have called diglossic differentiation, or the continual awareness of a relationship between high and low variations” (2006: 5). The truth of such inferences, as Aravamudan shrewdly suggests, is moot. For the samples of everyday speech and writing in English India, the representation of such in imaginative writing and what, above all, readers make of either in conditions that look alike but sound different in actual situations, might offer conflicting leads in research.