Staying on the Margins: Konkomba Mobility and Belonging in Northern Ghana, 1914-1996 Joseph Udimal Kachim Thesis Submitted in Accordance with the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities for the Centre of Africa Studies at the University of the Free State Supervisor: Prof. Neil Roos Co-Supervisors: Dr. Matteo Grilli and Dr. Anusa Daimon November 2018 Declaration I declare that the thesis hereby submitted by me for the Doctor of Philosophy degree at the University of the Free State is my own independent work and has not been previously submitted to any university or institution for any degree, diploma, or any other qualification. I furthermore cede copyright of the dissertation in favour of the University of the Free State. Signed: Joseph Udimal Kachim To Rev. Fr. Joseph Renner Table of Contents Abstract i Opsomming ii Acknowledgement iii Abbreviations and Acronyms v Tables and Maps vi 1 Conceptual and Methodological Reflections on Mobility and Belonging 1 2 The Roots and Origins of Konkomba Mobility before 1914 32 3 ‘The River is not to be Crossed’: Anglo-French Partition and Konkomba Cross-Border Mobility, 1914 – 1930s 56 4 Colonial Policy, Dagomba Exploitation and Konkomba Southwards Migration, 1930s – 1951 83 5 ‘Making Homes in Nawol’: Immigrants, Colonial State and Local Politics, 1931 – 1960s 112 6 Postcolonial Power Shift, Konkomba Marginalisation and Ethnic Mobilisation, 1960s – 1980s 143 7 Democratisation and Belonging: Chieftaincy, Land Rights, Konkomba Exclusion and Conflicts, 1990s – 1996 176 Conclusion 204 Bibliography 214 Abstract This thesis examines Konkomba mobility and the contestations it generated about their belonging in northern Ghana. It analyses the social and political context within which this mobility occurred and argues that by moving across colonial and ethnic boundaries and further away from centres of power, the Konkomba placed themselves beyond the reach of state authorities. The thesis contends that whereas Konkomba spatial mobility was initially an instrument of resistance against state control, it became a source of marginality and exclusion from political and land rights in the postcolonial period. It further analyses the shifting British colonial policy, arguing that the nature and trajectory of British colonial experiment among the Konkomba were shaped not only by colonial initiatives but also by the Konkomba’s ability to subvert colonial rule through cross-border mobility. On the other hand, colonial policy also influenced the changing pattern and magnitude of Konkomba mobility. The thesis argues that the pattern of Konkomba mobility in the 1930s and 1940s has had a lasting impact not only on Konkomba status but also on the political and demographic history of the region. In addition, the thesis maintains that colonial state formation in northern Ghana produced a highly politicised form of ethnicity by pushing groups to redefine their feelings of belonging and identity in ethnic terms. It also analyses the tensions that emerged between the Konkomba and their host groups in the 1960s and 1970s as well as the differentiated ways in which they negotiated their inclusion in their host communities. Whereas in the 1990s, democratisation opened up political space for equal citizenship, it also excluded the Konkomba from land ownership and political rights. This fuelled tension between the Konkomba and their hosts. The thesis goes beyond explanations for mobility to contribute to debates around ethnic identity, belonging and democratisation in contemporary Africa, suggesting that there is the need to rethink the role of democratisation as a tool for empowering marginalised groups in Africa. i Opsomming Hierdie tesis ondersoek Konkomba beweeglikheid en die betwisting wat die gegenereer het oor of hulle behoort in noord Ghana. Dit analiseer die sosiale en politieke konteks waarin hierdie beweeglikheid voorgekom het en argumenteer dat deur om oor koloniale en etniese grense en verder weg van die sentrums van mag te beweeg, die Konkomba hulself buite die bereik van staatsowerhede geplaas het. Hierdie tesis voer aan dat terwyl Konkomba se ruimtelike beweeglikheid oorspronklik `n instrument vir verset teen staatsbeheer was, dit `n bron van marginalisering en uitsluiting van politieke en grondregte vir die Konkomba in die post- koloniale periode geraak het. Dit analiseer koloniale beleid en demonstreer dat die Britse koloniale beleid konstant geskuif het van akkommodasie na gewelddadige onderdrukking. Deur hierdie verskuiwings in Britse beleid te onthul argumenteer hierdie tesis dat die aard en trajek van die Britse koloniale eksperiment onder die Konkomba nie net gevorm was deur die amptelike koloniale inisiatiewe nie, maar ook deur die Konkomba se vermoë om koloniale heerskappy ondermyn deur kruis-grens beweeglikheid. Aan die ander kant het koloniale beleid ook die patrone en omvang van Konkomba beweeglikheid beïnvloed. `n Ondersoek van die sensus opnames van noord Ghana wys dat die Konkomba met grootskaalse migrasie na areas suid van hulle tuislande betrokke was. Hierdie patroon en omvang van Konkomba beweeglikheid in die 1930s en 1940s het `n blywende impak op Konkomba-status gehad asook op die politieke en demografiese geskiedenis van hierdie streek. Daarbenewens voer hierdie tesis aan dat koloniale staatsvorming in noord Ghana `n hoogs verpolitiseerde vorm van etnisiteit geskep het en groepe is forseer om hul gevoelens van behoort en identiteit in etnisiteit te herdefinieer. Dit analiseer ook die spanning wat ontstaan het tussen die Konkomba en hulle gaheer-groepe in die 1960 en 1970s en die onderskeidelike wyses hoe die Konkomba hul insluiting in die gasheer-gemeenskappe onderhandel het. Terwyl demokratisering in die 1990s politieke ruimte oop gemaak het for gelyke burgerskap, het dit in dieselfde asem die Konkomba van grondbesit en politieke regte uitgesluit en sodoende die spanning tussen die Konkomba en hul gashere aangevuur. Hierdeur gaan hierdie tesis verder as `n verduideliking van beweeglikheid om by te dra tot die debatte rondom etniese identiteit, behoort, en demokratisering in kontemporêre Afrika en dui op die nood om die rol van demokratisering in die bemagtiging van gemarginaliseerde groepe in Afrika te heroorweeg. ii Acknowledgement In the process of writing this thesis, I received numerous assistance and support from a number of individuals and institutions. Unquestionably, my greatest debt is to the International Studies Group (ISG) of the University of the Free States. The journey of writing this thesis began only after Professor Ian Phimister, the Director of the International Studies Group, awarded me a generous scholarship in 2015. Apart from the stipend extended to me throughout my three years of study, Professor Phimister funded two research trips to Ghana for my data collection. I would also like to thank Mrs. Ilse Le Roux and Ms Tari Gwena for their assistance and extraordinary sensitivity to my welfare at the centre. Their dedicated service together with the collegiality at ISG offered an excellent academic environment that facilitated the successful completion of this thesis. I owe a huge intellectual debt to my supervisors, Professor Neil Roos, Dr. Matteo Grilli and Dr. Anusa Daimon for their insightful comments on my draft chapters. Professor Neil Roos, in particular, was very helpful. In spite of the fact that he joined the supervisory team late into the project, he read up every draft chapter of the thesis and offered insightful suggestions that greatly enhance the quality of the thesis. Dr. Daniel Spence who was my first main supervisor was instrumental in guiding me through the first chapters of the thesis. The contributions of Dr. Matteo Grilli and Dr. Anusa Daimon to the thesis is immense. Dr. Grilli translated the relevant sections of Giulia Casentini’s book, (the latest major study on the Konkomba) from Italian into English, giving me the opportunity to understand her perspective. I am also very grateful to Dr. Grilli for our discussions in all the informal settings which he frequently set up. My thanks also go to Dr. Frank Gerits for his advice during the proposal stage of this thesis. I want to also extent my gratitude to the University of Cape Coast for granting me study leave to take up a full-time fellowship at the University of the Free State. In this regard, Professor Kwame Osei Kwarteng, the Head of History Department was of tremendous assistance in convincing the university to release me for studies. Many thanks also go to the late Professor Benedict Der and Professor De-valera Botchway for their mentorship. Mr. Adjei Agyepong and Dr. Richmond Ngula have been good friends and I appreciate their support during the many difficult times of my life. I owe special thanks to Dr. Kate Skinner of the University of Birmingham and Dr. Wilson K. Yayoh of the Centre for African Studies at the University of Cape Coast for taking an interest iii in my academic development. Thank you both for selecting me for the ESRC Graduate Training Partnership Placement at the University of Birmingham. I would never have embarked on a PhD program at the University of the Free State without the encouragement of Dr. Tinashe Nyamunda. Our meeting at Birmingham in May 2015 was really the beginning of my PhD journey. Throughout the writing period, his constant refrain, ‘you are almost done’ was a great motivation. Graduate school is supposed to be a long and lonely enterprise but mine was not. This was because of a cohort of great PhD student colleagues and Postdoctoral Fellows at ISG. Bryson Nkoma, Sibanengi Ncube, George Bishi, Mbozi Santebe, Victor Gwande, Ruhan Fourie and Tawanda Chambwe were all great friends and sources of advice. I benefited from scholarly discussions and advice from Drs. Kundai Manamere, Rita Amara, Ana Stevenson, Noel Ndumeya and Clement Masekure. Dr. Admire Mseba read some of my chapters, offered helpful suggestions, and directed me to relevant literature that greatly enhanced my thesis. Dr. Abraham Mlombo was always an e-mail away, no matter how big or how small the problem was.