3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies – Vol 24(1): 1 – 15 http://doi.org/10.17576/3L-2018-2401-01 Patterns and Causes of Deviations in English Verbal Inflectional Suffixes among Thai ELF Learners NAPASRI TIMYAM Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Humanities Kasetsart University, Thailand [email protected] ABSTRACT This study investigates the use of three verbal inflectional suffixes, i.e., the present tense -s, the past tense -ed, and the progressive -ing, among Thai ELF learners. It examines how they deviate from ENL norms and the causes of deviations are analysed. Data were taken from the academic writing of 116 English-major students at a university in Bangkok. The results showed that Thai ELF learners who have advanced and upper-intermediate level English knowledge and skills have acquired the ability to use these three suffixes, but they sometimes deviate from ENL norms. They tend to omit the -s ending when there is a long distance between the main subject and main verb, when there is a heavy subject containing a head and pre-/post-modifiers, and when the subject appears as a structurally complex category. They often omit the -ed ending when there are several past tense verbs in a sentence. They extend the use of the progressive aspect to talk about a general truth or habit which is typically expressed by the present simple tense in ENL. Results suggest that linguistic and functional causes are responsible for these deviations. Thai ELF learners use the zero forms of present and past tense verbs as a result of both syntactic complexity and the pragmatic motives of the efficiency of communication as well as the exploitation of redundancy. They use progressive verbs with general truths or habits due to the attractive form and meaning of this aspect and also the pragmatic motive of added prominence. Keywords: Thai ELF learners; deviations; the present tense -s; the past tense -ed; the progressive -ing INTRODUCTION The theoretical notion of “English as a Lingua Franca” (henceforth ELF) emerged in the second half of the 1990s. ELF is the form of English used as a contact language by people from varying lingua-cultural backgrounds (Firth 1996). Researchers using the ELF approach distinguish the form of ELF from English as a native language (ENL) and the pedagogic subject English as a foreign language (EFL). Traditionally, the study of English by non- native speakers is largely based on ENL norms, with the goal of communicating effectively with native speakers; differences from ENL norms in all aspects are regarded as errors that result from learners’ incomplete acquisition and when this takes place, teachers’ correction and remediation are very much needed (Jenkins 2006). However, the aim of English study for an ELF speaker is to communicate with other non-native speakers, so technically, ENL norms should not be applied to set the linguistic agenda of ELF (Jenkins 2012). Instead, the norms of ELF are negotiated by its users for specific purposes by relying on their lingua- cultural resources and are derived from interactions involving efforts and adjustments from all parties (Jenkins 2009, Cogo 2010). Based on this tenet of the theory, differences from ENL norms are not always signs of language incompetence, but can be indicative of emerging or potential features of ELF (Jenkins et al. 2011). That is, ELF speakers are viewed as language users in their own right who make use of English for their own purposes. According to Cogo and Dewey (2006) and Jenkins (2006), there are three criteria for determining whether features are emerging trends. First, they must be systematic in nature. Secondly, they must occur frequently and are produced by numerous speakers. Finally, they should not cause a breakdown in communication. Modifications that meet these criteria are regarded as “deviations” or 1 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies – Vol 24(1): 1 – 15 http://doi.org/10.17576/3L-2018-2401-01 “variants”, which are a natural part of language contact and language change, and not as “errors”, which are a result of the incomplete knowledge of English. Despite the focus on linguistic form, there are fewer ELF studies on morphosyntax, compared to phonology and pragmatics. In fact, research at this level is also crucial to the understanding of ELF communication. Many morphosyntactic features are redundant and serve communal, not communicative, purposes, resulting in speakers avoiding them and deviating from ENL norms (Seidlhofer 2008). Furthermore, many studies have analysed ELF forms in Europe (such as France and Italy) and the outer circle of Asian countries (such as Singapore and India); however, studies on the expanding circle of Asian countries (such as Japan and Thailand) are far less common (Bolton 2008). In addition, ELF research has predominantly dealt with spoken interactions (Dewey 2014). Although there has been recent interest in written language, not many implications have been drawn (Jenkins et al. 2011). Thailand is classified as an Asian country in the expanding circle firstly because it does not have a history of British colonisation and secondly, because English is used mainly for inter-cultural communication. There are just a few studies on Thai ELF learners and they mostly focus on socio-cultural aspects, not on the linguistic form of the language. To deal with this limitation and the other limitations of the previous literature as stated above, this study examines ELF’s morphosyntactic system in the academic writing of Thai learners. Given that deviations in tenses and aspects are often found in L2 research (e.g., Ranta 2006, Stapa & Izahar 2010), the target features of the current study include the present tense -s, the past tense -ed, and the progressive aspect -ing. The objectives of the study are: (1) to examine how Thai ELF learners deviate from ENL norms in their use of the three verbal inflectional suffixes, and (2) to analyse the underlying causes of the emerging patterns. It is hypothesised that Thai ELF learners show some forms of deviations in the three suffixes owing to both linguistic and functional causes. The results help to provide more complete data for the establishment of the empirical description of ELF’s linguistic form. LITERATURE REVIEW The review of the literature covers two areas: the background of the ELF approach and the role of ELF in Thailand. THE BACKGROUND OF THE ELF APPROACH Globalisation has brought about “the widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life” (Held et al. 1999, p. 2). The effect of globalisation is profound and far-reaching, causing significant changes in every aspect of life including language (Dewey 2007). As people inter-connect for various purposes on a global scale, there is a need for English to be a world-wide contact language. When English has spread geographically and across domains, the backgrounds of its users have been integrated into the characteristic features of ELF interactions. As a result, ELF’s common ground includes forms that it shares with ENL and also forms that differ from ENL and those that have arisen through contact between speakers across different geographical, linguistic, and cultural boundaries (Jenkins 2009). Linguistic forms of ELF have been of interest to ELF scholars since the 1990s. This is because ELF has to be well-grounded in empirical description in order to gain acceptance as a legitimate version of English (Hülmbauer et al. 2008). ELF research has shown the patterns of change and linguistic fluidity emerging in the way English is transformed in lingua franca communication (Dewey 2007, Jenkins et al. 2011). Because it has been used by people with 2 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies – Vol 24(1): 1 – 15 http://doi.org/10.17576/3L-2018-2401-01 various linguistic backgrounds in multicultural contexts, ELF has undergone many deviations and innovations, and it is marked by a number of linguistic features that make it distinct from ENL and other English varieties on all levels, including phonology, pragmatics, and also morphosyntax. THE ROLE OF ELF IN THAILAND Almost 100% of the population in Thailand speaks the Thai language (National Identity Board 2000). Although Thailand has no official second language, English forms the de facto second language; it is a compulsory subject in schools and higher education, and is used in a wide range of domains such as business, tourism, the internet, advertising, and scientific and technological transfer (Foley 2005, Baker 2012). Thailand is also a member of ASEAN (the Association of Southeast Asian Nations), in which English is chosen as the official working language. Thus, English has an increasingly important role in the country. It is a lingua franca that links Thailand culturally, intellectually, and commercially with other ASEAN members and the rest of the world (Baker 2012). Given that English has such status, some forms of ELF used by Thai speakers should develop. A study on Thai learners not only reveals salient features particularly associated with this group of speakers, but also sheds light on the nature of ELF communication. METHODOLOGY This study employed a qualitative approach by examining the academic writing of Thai ELF learners and analysing how their use of the three verbal inflectional suffixes deviates from ENL norms and the causes of these deviations. PARTICIPANTS According to Cogo and Dewey (2006) and Jenkins (2009), although ELF interactions include users at all proficiency levels, its description and codification are drawn from communication between proficient users so that systematic emerging patterns can be identified. Accordingly, the target population of the study was advanced and upper-intermediate Thai ELF users who have received formal instruction in English and have been schooled to conform to ENL norms for several years.