TOTEM 50 Thule Paleopathology: The Health shows they still had a moderate degree of Concerns of an Arctic Lifestyle logistical mobility that was seasonally-based (Buikstra 1976; Stenton 1991). Many semi- Katherine Bishop subterranean dwellings have been recorded at suspected large winter settlements along Introduction the coast, while smaller, more temporary, Though “many people may think of tent-dwellings have been found at proposed the skeleton as merely a framework to which summer settlements in the interior the more important soft tissues, those (McCartney and Savelle 1985). The Thule allowing for maintenance of life and expanded from coastal and interior Alaska personally identifiable characteristics, are (including the Aleutian Islands) along the attached and protected” (Jerkic 1993:214), coast of the central Arctic, extending as far the human skeleton can provide a vast array east as the Eastern Canadian coast and of knowledge once these soft tissues break Greenland prior to European contact. down. Examining the skeletal remains for Cultural variations have been documented at pathological markers, ante mortem stresses settlements across this vast range; however, and other anomalies is the study of disease there are many characteristics of the Thule in ancient populations called Human lifestyle that were consistent, and this Paleopathology (Aufderheide et al. 1998). general lifestyle will be applied to the These “osteobiographies” can be related to skeletal and mummified human remains the specific environment, diet and lifestyle discussed in this paper. The general environ- of individuals (Lovell and Dublenko 1999). ment, diet and habitual lifestyle of Thule While the osteological record for Thule is will be used to explore issues concerning scarce, I hope to demonstrate that the Thule health. remains that have been recovered provide While full-body remains (i.e. sufficient information to suggest the overall mummies) are rarely found within the health of Thule based on their Arctic archaeological record, they are incredibly lifestyle. useful when they do occur. Fortunately, the environmental factors present in the Arctic Who were Thule? are favorable for the creation of such Thule or Neoeskimo describes a mummified remains. The cold climate, non- culture that prospered in Alaska and the acidic soils and sparse carnivorous Canadian Arctic from roughly 800-700 BP scavengers have preserved a number of until they gave rise to the present Inuit known Arctic mummies which will be used culture around the time of European contact in this analysis (Cockburn et al. 2000; (Cassidy 1977; Hawkey and Merbs 1995). Zimmerman and Aufderheide 1984; Originating in Siberia and migrating east Zimmerman et al. 2000). The remaining into North America during a period of evidence discussed will be skeletal-based, glacial cooling, the Thule were hunter- with comparison to modern skeletal remains gatherers who specialized in marine and the applied ethnographic data from mammal hunting in the winter (with a strong recent Inuit populations. There are many emphasis on whaling) and caribou and theories in Arctic paleopathology based on smaller game hunting in the summer. The specific remains; however, I am choosing to Thule exhibited a more sedentary lifestyle focus on the main, and mostly recurring, than the cultures that pre-dated them in the health conditions that the Thule would have Arctic though; the archaeological evidence experienced. TOTEM vol 19 2010-2011 TOTEM 51 The osteological paradox individuals. There are also limitations of Before jumping into the bio- studying specific Native North American archaeological record, it is important to first remains. If remains are found, permission examine the limitations of using sparse needs to be granted by the local Inuit leaders skeletal remains to study the health of an before any studies can be conducted. In entire population. Keenleyside (1998) some instances entire studies have been outlined the four main limitations of: forbidden (Tom Porawski, personal …our ability to reconstruct the communication, March 2010). Other studies health of past populations…1) have been conditionally granted as, for many diseases, particularly acute example, certain parts of a skeleton may not infectious diseases, leave no be examined due to societal taboos evidence in bone; 2) different (Zimmerman and Aufderheide 1984). diseases produce similar skeletal To summarize, paleopathology can changes, making accurate be invaluable, but only if it is done with diagnosis difficult; 3) skeletal caution; while it does provide a sample of samples may be biased due to individuals, the sample is not necessarily differential burial practices or representative of an entire population. In preservation; and 4) skeletal order to effectively conduct osteological samples consist of individuals research, it is important to note the type of who failed to survive and are remains, the relative preservation of these therefore not representative of remains, and to what extent they have been the populations from which they studied when reported in the literature. This are derived (53). paper includes specimens from young and The fourth limitation described refers to the old individuals and only includes those Osteological Paradox, which has been specimens that were relatively well- identified by many anthropologists as the preserved; the sources for all specimens main limitation when studying skeletal have also been included from which to draw remains within the archaeological record your own conclusions (Table 1). (Wood et al. 1992). The majority of osteological specimens that are analyzed Environmental impact represent individuals that died of non- There are many physical, chemical natural causes, which creates an anomaly- and infectious environmental factors related rich study sample. Although Wood et al. to health concerns which have been (1992) and Byers (1994) discuss the documented as affecting present, as well as correlation of sedentism to the paradox, the past, populations (Kumar et al. 2007; basis of their argument is important for this Roberts and Manchester 2005). Many of analysis: simply put, skeletal remains do not these agents are evident in the present Arctic accurately represent an entire demography. environment and can be directly related to The types of remains that are the environment the Thule lived in. Physical analyzed need to be considered as well. The agents that contribute to negative health relative age of the remains (of the individual include temperature and trauma. As Hawkey at death) can also provide results that are not and Merbs (1993) outlined, the temperatures representative of an entire population. As experienced by the Thule could have been discussed by White and Folkens (2005), below -50˚C in the winter, which is well most health concerns increase with age, below the point at which flesh freezes. producing a worse-case scenario for elderly Frostbite would not have been the only TOTEM vol 19 2010-2011 TOTEM 52 health concern associated with temperature, The absence of sun in the Arctic and as cold temperatures have been found to the related chemical agent (or lack thereof) accelerate musculoskeletal trauma. As a may have affected Thule health. Vitamin D, result, individuals would be more sus- which is obtained through the sun’s rays, ceptible to the effects of trauma in the cold, allows the body to process calcium which is which then increased the severity of said necessary to repair all bone (Kumar et al. trauma. 2007). Both osteoporosis and problems with Also, cold temperatures would have basic skeletal repair has been described in created the need for a completely enclosed Thule skeletons (Cassidy 1997; Hawkey and space such as that seen in the Thule semi- Merbs 1993; Keenleyside 1998; Zimmerman subterranean dwellings. These dwellings and Aufderheide 1984; Zimmerman et al. contained entire families, all of their waste, 2000), which suggests that a lack of vitamin as well as the smoke and soot from seal oil D (possibly caused by a lack of sunlight) lamps (Keenleyside 1998; Zimmerman et al. may have increased these problems. 2000). Evidence from the mummies Demineralization of bone and other analyzed by Cockburn et al. (1998), such osteoporotic problems can be the result Zimmerman and Aufderheide (1984) and of postmortem bone damage and decay; Zimmerman et al. (2000) demonstrated an however, specific specimens demonstrate incidence of emphysema and other anthra- excellent preservation in addition to osteo- cotic problems in the lungs. These lung porotic markers suggesting that these bone conditions may be a direct result of the conditions did, in fact, exist among Thule smoke within the dwelling. Emphysema can (Keenleyside 1998). Therefore, based on be directly analyzed through lung tissue, colder temperatures, the conditions present while other lung problems have been in their dwellings and the lack of sunlight suggested by Keenleyside (1998) as being experienced by Thule, environmental factors evident in osteological lesions within the had a direct affect on overall health and ribs of specimens. Air pollution, another predisposed individuals to specific diseases. cause of emphysema, has never been suspected, suggesting that these black lungs You are what you eat are a direct result of lamp smoke. Directly related to the environment, Thule would have also been the Thule had a relatively limited diet that predisposed to a number of “zoonotic and was obtained through hunting and some parasitic