Roskilde University An Eco-Design and Innovation Feasibility Study of Low-Carbon Illumination Technologies for the Tertiary Sector in Denmark Bjarklev, Araceli Publication date: 2012 Document Version Early version, also known as pre-print Citation for published version (APA): Bjarklev, A. (2012). An Eco-Design and Innovation Feasibility Study of Low-Carbon Illumination Technologies for the Tertiary Sector in Denmark. Roskilde Universitet. 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Oct. 2021 An Eco-Design and Innovation Feasibility Study of Low-Carbon Illumination Technologies for the Tertiary Sector in Denmark Ph.D. Thesis by: Araceli Bjarklev Department of Environmental, Social and Spatial Changes, Roskilde University, Denmark Maj 2012 © 2012 Araceli Bjarklev Layout: Ritta Juel Bitsch Front page: Araceli Bjarklev and Ritta Juel Bitsch Front page picture: Kent Laursen and Helle Trole Print: Prinfo Paritas Digital Service ISBN 978-87-7349-809-5 Table of Contents Acknowledgments ....................................................................................11 Abstract....................................................................................................13 Abstrakt ...................................................................................................15 Abbreviations and Acronyms List ............................................................17 Chapter 1. Introduction...........................................................................19 1.1 Problem Area..................................................................................... 21 1.1.1 Climate Change ........................................................................ 21 1.1.2 World energy demand ............................................................... 23 1.1.3 Resource availability, environmental impacts and health risks .... 25 1.1.6 Socio-technological issues ......................................................... 28 1.1.7 Technological and practical considerations ................................. 29 1.1.8 Low-carbon technologies design and innovation ........................ 30 1.1.9 Eco-design and innovation feasibility study definition ............... 31 1.2 Research Area .................................................................................... 31 1.2.1 Geographic delimitation ........................................................... 32 1.2.2 Why lighting technologies? ........................................................ 32 1.2.3 Research focus ........................................................................... 32 1.3 Selected Technologies for This Study ................................................. 37 1.4 Rationale ........................................................................................... 38 1.5 Research Objectives ........................................................................... 39 1.6 Case Study ........................................................................................ 40 1.7 Research Question ............................................................................. 40 1.8 Target Group ..................................................................................... 41 Chapter 2. Philosophy of Science, Theoretical Framework and Methods .43 2.1 Overall Selected Scientific Approach ................................................. 43 2.2 Abstraction Theory ............................................................................ 47 2.2.1 Abstraction, technological and socio-economic issues ................ 50 TABLE OF CONTENTS 2.2.2 Relation Subject-Object ............................................................. 51 2.3 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................... 55 2.3.1 Product system ..................................................................... 55 2.3.2 Product-service system .......................................................... 56 2.3.3 Technological and Innovation system .................................... 61 2.4 Methods ........................................................................................... 72 2.4.1 Selection of case study .......................................................... 75 2.4.2 Extensive / Intensive research design ..................................... 77 2.4.3 Action research ..................................................................... 79 2.4.4 Analysis strategy .................................................................. 81 2.4.5 Research Methods ................................................................. 82 2.5 Research Question Empirical- Theoretical Considerations ................. 86 2.6 Thesis Design .................................................................................... 91 Chapter 3. Identification of the main environmental impacts in the product system .................................................................99 3.1 Background to the Environmental Assessment of Energy-Using Products in the Lighting Sector ....................................................... 100 3.1.1 Environmental assessment in the office lighting sector ........ 102 3.2 Environmental Impacts Along the Entire Life Cycle ........................ 104 3.2.1 Manufacturing and use phases ............................................ 106 3.2.2 The consumption of electricity and the mercury issue ......... 109 3.2.3 Recommendations to reduce electricity consumption ......... 112 3.3 Conclusions .................................................................................... 112 Chapter 4. Identifying Product System Technological Improvement Potentials .........................................................................115 4.1 LEDs or LFLs... Which Way Should We Go? .................................. 116 4.1.1 Luminous efficacy ............................................................... 116 4.1.2 Lifetime factor .................................................................... 119 4.1.3 Mercury content ................................................................. 119 4.1.4 Product-service system-oriented potential ........................... 119 4.1.5 Selection of the light transport system used in this assessment ........................................................ 120 4.2 Assessing Energy Consumption ....................................................... 123 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4.2.1Goal of the study: ................................................................ 123 4.2.2 Scope .................................................................................. 124 4.2.3 System boundaries .............................................................. 125 4.3 Energy Input vs. Lumen Output in A Solar Fibre Optical System ....................................................................... 128 4.3.1 Energy consumption in the use phase ................................. 133 4.4 Hybrid System Energy Assessment ................................................. 134 4.5 Solar Optical Fibre Product-Service System Potentials Assessment .. 135 4.5.1 Flexibility potential (having the light where it is needed) .... 135 4.5.2 Optimal spectral composition of light for a working space .. 136 4.6 Materials and Chemicals in other Phases of the SFOS Life Cycle .... 137 4.7 Conclusions .................................................................................... 138 Chapter 5. Assessing the life cycle cost of the chosen alternatives ..........141 5.1 Cost Inventory of the Selected Technologies .................................... 142 5.1.1 Use phase life cycle cost for the BAT within fluorescent lamps ................................................................ 143 5.1.2 Use phase life cycle cost for the BAT within LEDs lamps ... 147 5.1.3 Use phase life cycle cost for a hybrid system ....................... 150 5.2 Use Phase Cost Assessment Comparing the Three Cases .................. 154 5.3 Improvement Potentials for LEDs ................................................... 163 5.4 Improvement Potentials for HFOL Systems .................................... 164 5.5 Discussion and Results .................................................................... 165 5.6 Conclusions .................................................................................... 168 Chapter 6. Assessing consumer acceptance ............................................171 6.1 Past Experiences of Potential Adopters ............................................ 174 6.2 Who Decides What Illumination Service Should Be Bought for Public Buildings? ..................................................... 176 6.2.1 Regulators........................................................................... 176 6.2.2 Service providers ................................................................