PDF hosted at the Radboud Repository of the Radboud University Nijmegen The following full text is a publisher's version. For additional information about this publication click this link. https://hdl.handle.net/2066/217512 Please be advised that this information was generated on 2021-09-25 and may be subject to change. Neither in nor out Former Muslims between narratives of belonging and secular convictions in the Netherlands and the UK Maria Vliek Colofon Neither in nor out. Former Muslims between narratives of belonging and secular convictions in the Netherlands and the UK – Maria Vliek ISBN: 978-94-6375-807-9 Copyright © 2020 Maria Vliek All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any way or by any means without the prior permission of the author, or when applicable, of the publishers of the scientific papers. Cover design by Ibn Eulim Layout and design by Elisa Calamita, persoonlijkproefschift.nl Printing: Ridderprint BV | www.ridderprint.nl 2 Neither in nor out Former Muslims between narratives of belonging and secular convictions in the Netherlands and the UK Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen op gezag van de rector magnificus prof. dr. J.H.J.M. van Krieken, volgens besluit van het college van decanen in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 3 april 2020 om 12.30 uur precies door Maria Vliek geboren op 30 april 1988 te Wierden 3 Promotoren: Prof. dr. C. van Nieuwkerk Prof. dr. G.J. van der Heiden Manuscriptcommissie: Prof. dr. F.J.S. Wijsen Prof. dr. M.W. Buitelaar (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) Prof. dr. H.Y.M. Jansen (Universiteit van Amsterdam) Prof. dr. M.S. Berger (Universiteit Leiden) Dr. M.J.M. de Koning 4 Neither in nor out Former Muslims between narratives of belonging and secular convictions in the Netherlands and the UK Doctoral Thesis to obtain the degree of doctor from Radboud University Nijmegen on the authority of the Rector Magnificus prof. dr. J.H.J.M. van Krieken according to the decision of the Council of Deans to be defended in public on Friday, April 3, 2020 at 12.30 Hours by Maria Vliek born on April 30, 1988 in Wierden, the Netherlands 5 Supervisors: Prof. dr. C. van Nieuwkerk Prof. dr. G.J. van der Heiden Doctoral thesis committee: Prof. dr. F.J.S. Wijsen Prof. dr. M.W. Buitelaar (University of Groningen) Prof. dr. H.Y.M. Jansen (University of Amsterdam) Prof. dr. M.S. Berger (Leiden University) Dr. M.J.M. de Koning 6 The Cover Islam is usually described as one of the world’s great religions. However, the Western word ‘religion’ does not do it justice. Many Muslims refer to Islam as their Dīn. The concept of Dīn encompasses much more than just religion, it is a total way of life. Many Muslims find Hadith (saying and teachings of the Prophet) to guide every aspect of daily living; the manner in which they groom themselves, the manner in which they conduct their intimate relationships, the manner in which they drink a glass of water. Some may find the totality of Islam can structure their life. But, for anyone with a modicum of independence and the desire to think freely, Islam can be utterly constraining like no mere religion can be. My journey leaving Islam has been a painful but rewarding experience. Losing the lens Islam had given me to see the world left me stumbling blindly and unable to orient myself. But ultimately, I found a new and deeper way of looking at the world. I found a world, full of scientific curiosities and mysteries, more than can be explained by a few ancient texts. It is a world of culinary, sexual and intellectual wonder. I see a complex world, but one filled with possibility and freedom beyond the narrow confines of Islam. I painted the image that is now the cover of this book during an art therapy session at the Council of Ex-Muslims of Britain. While it lacks technical merit, I do think it captured the feeling of my world opening out into something so much bigger and better. The green and black section show the tiles of a mosaic. The tiles are strictly laid out without aberrations, but the strictness cannot hold, and must give way to colour and freedom. Ibn Eulim – London, 22 January 2020 7 Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... 8 PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................ 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................... 12 NOTE ON TRANSLATION AND TRANSLITERATION ............................................................ 15 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 16 ISLAM AND ‘APOSTASY’ – WHAT .............................................................................................................. 18 INTERLOCUTORS – WHO ........................................................................................................................ 23 THE NETHERLANDS & BRITAIN - WHERE ................................................................................................... 26 SCHOLARLY TRADITION - DIALOGICAL SELF, THE MATERIAL TURN, AND NARRATIVE ......................................... 29 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS ................................................................................................... 33 RESEARCHER SUBJECTIVITY – SOME REFLECTIONS ....................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 38 CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 43 RELIGION, SECULARISM, AND THE PRODUCTION OF DISCOURSE .............................. 43 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 43 DISCOURSE .......................................................................................................................................... 47 ‘THE MULTICULTURAL DRAMA’: SECULARISM AND ASSIMILATIONISTS IN THE NETHERLANDS ............................. 52 BEING ‘POST-RACE’ AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF ‘MUSLIM OTHERNESS’ IN BRITAIN ......................................... 61 GENDER, SEXUAL FREEDOM, SECULARISM, AND ISLAM ................................................................................ 71 DUTCH ‘SEXULARISM’ AND ITS BRITISH OTHER ............................................................................................ 72 VEIL DEBATES IN BRITAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS ...................................................................................... 79 HONOUR-CRIME, MULTICULTURALISM, ASSIMILATION, AND POLICY .............................................................. 82 BRITISH AND DUTCH PRESS – MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS? ............................................................................ 86 MUSLIMS ‘IN’ OR REPRESENTED BY THE MEDIA? ........................................................................................ 88 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................ 93 CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 96 “WHEN I FINALLY HEARD MY OWN VOICE” DIALOGICAL ARTICULATIONS OF SELF-MAKING WHEN MOVING OUT OF ISLAM IN THE NETHERLANDS ...................... 96 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 96 8 DIALOGICAL SELF THEORY: THE MEANING OF POWER AND SELF-MAKING ....................................................... 99 PUBLIC DEBATE, “EX-MUSLIMS”, AND ISLAM ........................................................................................... 103 YAGANA’S STORY AND WORKING THE SELF: THROUGH INCREASED RELIGIOSITY TO NON-BELIEF ....................... 106 PROBLEMATICS OF BEING: COMING OUT? .............................................................................................. 110 CONCLUDING REMARKS ....................................................................................................................... 114 CHAPTER 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 117 CHALLENGING SECULARITIES, CHALLENGING RELIGION: ‘SECULARIST EX- MUSLIM VOICES’ IN THE BRITISH DEBATE ON ISLAM AND FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION ................................................................................................................................... 117 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 117 MULTIPLE SECULARITIES ....................................................................................................................... 119 MULTIPLE SECULARITIES IN THE NETHERLANDS ........................................................................................ 122 BRITISH SECULARITIES: THE ORIGINS OF CHURCH-STATE RELATIONS AND RELIGIOUS PLURALISM ....................