Policy brief Why Misery Loves Company: The Rise of Conspiracyæ Theories and Violent Extremism Issue 2020/07 • November 2020 By Raul Rios The aim of this policy brief is to provide an Introduction overview of some key research recently published examining conspiracy theories QAnon, the great replacement, chemtrails and and their possible links to violence, 5G causing Coronavirus, are among some of particularly violent extremism. The research the recent conspiracy theories which have cited is meant as a starting point for become increasingly associated with extremist policymakers and decision-makers (yet groups (specifically far-right extremist). Of without claiming to be fully exhaustive). growing concern among authorities, is that the Second, this policy brief seeks to highlight subscribers of the latter and other conspiracy some of the key trends and dynamics theories may be at risk of becoming radicalised between conspiracy theories and the acts of violence associated with them, or in some instances compelled to carry out by looking at how one may influence acts of violence as a result of narratives and the other. The policy brief concludes by belief peddled by them. In the recent past, suggesting a series of recommendations these horrible acts have included those such for policymakers and decision-makers to as the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting in consider when developing new policies Pennsylvania, where the perpetrator believed to tackle extremist groups which have in a white genocide conspiracy theory (Lind, integrated conspiracy theories promoting 2018), or the Hanau terrorist attack where the violence into their milieus or narratives. attacker was a subscriber of several different conspiracy theorists blog posts (Emberland, 2020). In this regard, Gilles de Kerchove, the EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator, expressed in an Conspiracy? An Act Versus a Theory interview with the West Point Sentinel on August 2020 that “the potential future rise of new forms Misinformation, obfuscation of the facts and of terrorism, rooted in conspiracy theories and ever-shifting narratives, are commonplace technophobia, is a cause for concern” (quoted when dealing with conspiracy theories and their in Pantucci, 2020). Throughout the last decade, subscribers. Therefore, it is important to clarify researchers across several fields, policymakers the difference between an act of conspiracy and decisionmakers have started to take versus a conspiracy theory. First off, legal conspiracy theories and the role they play in definitions as to what exactly constitutes a inciting and fuelling violence, including acts criminal act of conspiracy vary according to of violent extremism and terrorism much more civil and common law regimes and on a state seriously. by state basis. Criminal laws concerning acts of conspiracy tend to exist in most countries in Policy brief • n° 2020/07 Europe as well as the United States (Stenson, Building Blocks of a Conspiracy Theory 2006.). The main legal elements key to a crime At the very minimum, all conspiracy theories of conspiracy, are the actus reus (guilty act; share three key components. The first is the required in most jurisdictions to prosecute) and existence of a secret plot or covert action, which mens rea (guilty mind) (UNDOC, 2018). In its has taken place either at the regional, national most basic legal definition, an act of conspiracy or global level. The second component is a consists of two or more individuals who plot to group of conspirators portrayed as powerful. commit a criminal act and then carry out the act. They are often identified as belonging to the However, throughout the literature additional opposition and are at the helm of the conspiracy. elements are often included in the definitions The third key component found in conspiracy of what constitutes a conspiracy. Elements theories is a particular group who are used as such as, the power status of the conspirators scapegoats, blaming them for all that is wrong or group (political or social), their ability and within their societies (i.e. Jews, Muslims, capacity to execute the conspiracy, and how Romani, intellectuals, LGBTQI, etc). While, these widespread and far-reaching the conspiracy three points form the foundation of mostly all are. For example, Douglas et al. (2019) define conspiracy theories and are key to identifying a conspiracy as a “secret plot by two or more them, they might also share other components. powerful actors” (citing Keeley, 1999 and Pigden, In their research, van Prooijen and van Vugt 1995). Whereas Uscinski et al. (2016), define a (2018) point out five components of conspiracy conspiracy as a “secret arrangement between theories; deliberateness, secrecy, coalition, a small group of actors to usurp political or threat and pattern. Conspiracy theories, also economic power, violate established rights, tend to have a Manichean or dualistic world view hide vital secrets, or illicitly cause widespread where there exist a good vs. evil, or a them vs. us harm”. As for the definition of a conspiracy component (Oliver and Wood, 2014). Yet, another theory, Oxford dictionary defines it as “a belief important aspect is that conspiracy theories that some covert but influential organization tend to be “self-sealing” and extremely “resistant is responsible for an unexplained event”. In to correction” (Sunstein and Vermeule, 2008). the academic literature, the definition of a In the case of newer conspiracy theories conspiracy theory tends to vary to some extent particularly QAnon, they are not only seemingly and often include specifically defined concepts resistant to correction and self-sealing but or elements. Douglas et al. (2019) define a are able to adapt and evolve to new counter- conspiracy theory as “attempts to explain narratives or contradictory information. Indeed, the ultimate causes of significant social and QAnon has increasingly begun integrating political events and circumstances with claims aspects of other theories, such as 5G and of secret plots by two or more powerful actors.” Coronavirus, anti-vaccination theories and more Similarly, Sunstein and Vermeule (2008), also recently #SaveOurChildren. A conglomeration include in their definition of conspiracy theory of several theories continues to appeal to their a group of “powerful people”. Another common subscriber base (Doward, 2020). Interestingly, component found in definitions of conspiracy the fact that QAnon subscribers believe in theories is their degree of harmfulness or multiple unrelated conspiracy theories at once, malevolence (Oliver and Wood, 2014). it is not necessarily an uncommon phenomenon 2 Policy brief • n° 2020/07 (see Wood, Douglas, & Sutton, 2012). Moreover, as reddit (see Scrivens, Davies, Frank, 2020) or A recent survey examining the relationship voat.co (see Blackburn et al., 2020) have also between QAnon and conspiracy beliefs in the helped to propagate conspiracy theories at an US showed that only a small percentage of alarming rate. Somewhat concerning is the QAnon subscribers believed in all the theories fact that in one survey 7% of the respondents associated with QAnon (Schaffner 2020). But (n=4,057) thought that QAnon (which is a of some concern among researcher, is that the conspiracy theory itself) was a trustable source latter form of conspiracy integration found in of information, whereas a sixth of respondents QAnon could be novel and might be indicative of surveyed said they “trust QAnon at least some QAnon subscribers moving towards creating a of the time” (Schaffner 2020). form of both online and offline collective identity But why do individuals decide to subscribe to (see Gaudette et al., 2020). The components conspiracy theories? Multidisciplinary research outlined above are among the most highlighted examining what drives individuals (mainly throughout the literature. This is not meant to in the United States and Europe) to believe in be an exhaustive list of components. conspiracy theories has been increasingly carried out in the last decade. The research Subscribing to Conspiracy Theories indicates that individuals who are the most While international actors such as UNESCO susceptible to conspiracy theories include (2020) and the European Commission (2020), those with a basic level of education (associated have launched campaigns in order to counter with “cognitive complexity” see van Prooijen, misinformation arising from conspiracy theories 2017), individuals who are socially marginalized and alert citizens on key issues, many still fall prey or isolated, who feel unsure about their job to conspiracy theories. Vital to understanding security (van Prooijen and Douglas, 2017), those the dynamics which exist between conspiracy with low income levels, and those who agree theories and violent extremism is understanding that violence is a legitimate means of solving which demographics are the most susceptible social or political problems (Drochon 2018, to the narratives espoused by them. Indeed, citing Uckinksi and Parent 2014). In addition, conspiracy theories have increasingly found a the type of democratic political system (i.e. following among certain populations in both direct democracy versus representative) seems Europe and the United States. In Germany, to have no direct impact or influence among a recent survey found that about a third of conspiracy subscribers, who tend to already respondents believed that a secret cabal is heavily suspect or reject their political system running the world (Deutsche Welle, 2020).