Lassi Heininen, Editor Heather Exner-Pirot, Managing Editor Joël Plouffe, Managing Editor i Arctic Yearbook 2012 Table of Contents ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................................................................. IV PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................................ VIII SECTION I: ARCTIC POLICIES ......................................................................................................................... 1 STATE OF THE ARCTIC STRATEGIES AND POLICIES – A SUMMARY ....................................................................... 2 NON-ARCTIC STATES: THE OBSERVER QUESTION AT THE ARCTIC COUNCIL .................................................. 48 THAWING ICE AND FRENCH FOREIGN POLICY: A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT ............................................... 52 CHINA AND THE ARCTIC ............................................................................................................................................ 81 COMMENTARY: CHINA AND ARCTIC AFFAIRS ...................................................................................................... 92 JAPAN’S ARCTIC POLICY: THE SUM OF MANY PARTS ........................................................................................... 94 SINGAPORE: AN EMERGING ARCTIC ACTOR ....................................................................................................... 105 AN ARCTIC STRATEGY FOR SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................ 115 THE UNITED KINGDOM AND THE ARCTIC IN THE 21ST CENTURY ................................................................. 131 POLAND AND THE ARCTIC: BETWEEN SCIENCE AND DIPLOMACY .................................................................. 140 COMMENTARY: EU’S NEW ARCTIC COMMUNICATION: TOWARDS UNDERSTANDING OF A GREATER ROLE .................................................................................................................................................................................... 157 SECTION II: CRITICAL GEOPOLITICS .................................................................................................. 160 INUIT POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT IN THE ARCTIC ................................................................................................ 161 COMMENTARY: A VOICE FROM THE ARCTIC ...................................................................................................... 178 THE ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT – FROM LOW TO HIGH POLITICS ....................................................................... 180 25 YEARS OF ARCTIC ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCY: CHANGING ISSUES AND POWER RELATIONS .............. 195 SECTION III: CIRCUMPOLAR RELATIONS ......................................................................................... 224 NEW DIRECTIONS FOR GOVERNANCE IN THE ARCTIC REGION ....................................................................... 225 SHIPPING AND RESOURCES IN THE ARCTIC OCEAN: A HEMISPHERIC PERSPECTIVE1 ................................. 247 THE FUTURE OF ARCTIC SHIPPING ALONG THE TRANSPOLAR SEA ROUTE .................................................. 281 COMMENTARY: THINKING ABOUT THE ‘NEW’ ARCTIC GEOGRAPHY ............................................................ 308 COLLABORATIVE INFRASTRUCTURES: A ROADMAP FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN THE ARCTIC .................................................................................................................................................................................... 311 SECTION IV: UPDATE ON THE UARCTIC AND NRF THEMATIC NETWORK ON GEOPOLITICS AND SECURITY ................................................................................................................ 334 COMMENTARY: DIALOGUE ACROSS BORDERS IN THE CIRCUMPOLAR NORTH: HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE 2012 CALOTTE ACADEMY ON WATER IN/AND THE ARCTIC .......................................................................... 335 ii Arctic Yearbook 2012 Heininen, Lassi. (Ed.). (2012). Arctic Yearbook 2012. Akureyri, Iceland: Northern Research Forum. Available from http://www.arcticyearbook.com This publication is available under limited copyright protection. You may download, distribute, photocopy, cite or excerpt this document provided it is properly and fully credited and not used for commercial purposes. Editor: Lassi Heininen, University of Lapland [[email protected]] Managing Editors: Heather Exner-Pirot, University of Saskatchewan [[email protected]]; Joël Plouffe, University of Québec at Montreal (UQAM) [[email protected]] Editorial Board: Dr. Lawson Brigham (Distinguished Professor of Geography & Arctic Policy, University of Alaska Fairbanks; Senior Fellow, Institute of the North, United States) Dr. Robert Corell (Principal and Professor II, Global Environment & Technology Foundation; Chair of Global Science Associates; University of Tromsø & University of the Arctic, Norway) Dr. Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson (Honorable President of Iceland) Dr. Yang Jian (Vice-President of Shanghai Institutes for International Studies, China) Dr. Kari Laine (Director of the Thule Institute, University of Oulu, Finland) Dr. Gustaf Lind (Arctic Council SAO Chair, Sweden) Dr. Steven E. Miller (Director of the International Security Program; Editor-in-Chief of International Security, Harvard University, United States) Dr. Alexander Pelyasov (Russian Academy of Sciences; Director of the Center of Northern and Arctic Economics; Ministry of Economic Development & Trade, Russia) Ms. Diana Wallis (MEP & Former Vice-President of the EU Parliament, United Kingdom) iii About Arctic Yearbook The Arctic Yearbook is the outcome of the Northern Research Forum and the University of the Arctic Thematic Network (TN) on Geopolitics and Security. The TN also organizes the annual Calotte Academy. The Arctic Yearbook is intended to be the preeminent repository of critical analysis on the Arctic region, with a mandate to inform observers about the state of Arctic geopolitics and security. It is an international and interdisciplinary peer-reviewed publication, published online at [www.arcticyearbook.com] to ensure wide distribution and accessibility to a variety of stakeholders and observers. Arctic Yearbook material is obtained through a combination of invited contributions and an open call for papers. For more information on contributing to the Arctic Yearbook, or participating in the UArctic TN on Geopolitics and Security, contact the Editor, Lassi Heininen. ISSN 2298–2418 The Arctic Yearbook has received generous technical support from the Arctic Portal [http://arcticportal.org/]. iv Acronyms A5 Arctic 5 AAC Arctic Athabaskan Council AANDC Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada AC Arctic Council ACAP Arctic Contaminants Action Program ACIA Arctic Climate Impact Assessment AEPS Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy AHDR Arctic Human Development Report AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program AMSA Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment AMSP Arctic Marine Strategic Plan ANWR Arctic National Wildlife Refuge AOR Arctic Ocean Review ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASSW Arctic Science Summit Week AWPPA Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act BAM Baikal-Amur Mainline BAT Best Available Techniques BEAC Barents Euro Arctic Council BEAR Barents Euro Arctic Region BEP Best Environmental Practice BIS Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (UK) BP British Petroleum CAA Chinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration CAFF Conservation of Arctic Fauna and Flora CARC Canadian Arctic Resources Committee CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBSS Council of the Baltic Sea States CCGS Canadian Coast Guard Ship CEA Centre d’Etudes Arctiques CEARC Centre Européen Arctique CFP Common Fisheries Policy CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CLCS Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (France) COP15 15th Conference of Parties (to the Kyoto Protocol) CORE Centre for Offshore Research & Engineering CP Le Cercle Polaire CPAR Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region DC Davis Corridor DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change (UK) DEFRA Department for Food and Rural Affairs (UK) DFAIT Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (Canada) DfT Department for Transport (UK) v DND Department of National Defence (Canada) DWT Dead Weight Tonnes EBM Ecosystem Based Management EC European Commission EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EFTA European Free Trade Agreeement EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ENGO Environmental Non Governmental Organizations EP European Parliament EPPR Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response ESDP European Security and Defense Policy EU European Union FC Fram Corridor FCO UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading GBP Great Britain Pound GDP Gross Domestic Product GEGA Groupe d’Etude sur la Gouvernance Arctique (France) GPS Global Positioning System HDI Human Development Index IASC International Arctic Science Committee IASSA International Arctic Social Science Association ICC Inuit Circumpolar Council IEA International Energy Agency IGO Intergovernmental Organisation ILO International Labour Organisation IMO International Maritime Organisation INSROP International Northern Sea Route Programme IPCC Intergovernmental