City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works Publications and Research Hostos Community College 2011 Crossroads: New York's Black Intellectuals and the Role of Ideology in the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965 Kristopher B. Burrell CUNY Hostos Community College How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/ho_pubs/16 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] CROSSROADS: NEW YORK'S BLACK INTELLECTUALS AND THE ROLE OF IDEOLOGY IN THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, 1954-1965 by KRISTOPHER BURRELL A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2011 © 2011 KRISTOPHER BRYAN BURRELL All Rights Reserved ii This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in History in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Dr. Clarence Taylor____________________ History Department, CUNY Graduate Center _________________ ___________________________________ Date Chair of Examining Committee Dr. Helena Rosenblatt__________________ History Department, CUNY Graduate Center _________________ ___________________________________ Date Executive Officer Dr. Joshua Freeman___________________________ History Department, CUNY Graduate Center Dr. Carol Berkin______________________________ History Department, CUNY Graduate Center Dr. Jeanne Theoharis___________________________ Political Science Department, Brooklyn College Dr. Robyn Spencer_____________________________ History Department, Lehman College Supervisory Committee THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii Abstract CROSSROADS: NEW YORK'S BLACK INTELLECTUALS AND THE ROLE OF IDEOLOGY IN THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, 1954-1965 By Kristopher Burrell Adviser: Dr. Clarence Taylor This dissertation studies the importance of New York City, and the black intellectuals who gathered there, to the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The figures discussed here merit the term “intellectual” because they were makers and purveyors of many ideas that sustained and broadened the movement. Studying key activist-intellectuals from across the ideological spectrum allows for a more complete understanding of the importance of ideas in propelling the movement. Looking at the ways in which black intellectuals evolved and used different ideologies in pursuit of racial equality is another way of demonstrating African American agency. This study writes against the characterization of the civil rights movement as primarily fueled by emotionalism and impulsive. Black intellectuals actively sought to plot out the course that the movement would take. This dissertation continues to move civil rights historiography away from the notion that Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X provided the only two approaches for achieving racial equality by demonstrating that there was a broader spectrum of ideologies that African Americans used and adapted in trying to successfully prosecute their struggle to secure racial equality. Instead of merely two approaches—liberal integrationism and black nationalism—I iv argue that there were four main ideologies in conversation and contention with one another during this period—racial liberalism, conservatism, leftism, and black nationalism. This dissertation also contributes to the growing literature on the civil rights movement outside of the South. I make two main arguments about the significance of New York City to the movement. First, New York was important because institutions of every political and ideological stripe sank roots into and influenced the intellectual and cultural milieu of black New York and black America. Second, black intellectuals who were drawn to the city flourished because they sampled the extraordinary variety of ideas on display as they matured intellectually and developed their own strategies for growing and sustaining a national movement for social, political, and economic justice. For these reasons, New York is deserving of further study in relation to civil rights agitation and activism. v Acknowledgements No one completes a dissertation—or graduate school—by themselves. As isolating as researching and writing a dissertation can sometimes be, there really is a collective effort to produce a full manuscript. This has certainly been my experience in preparing this dissertation—and getting through graduate school. During this process I have discovered how many people have been sharing in my dissertation writing experience vicariously and invested themselves emotionally in my journey towards becoming a doctor. I thank each and every one of those people. That being said, there are certainly people and institutions that require individual acknowledgement. I first want to thank Clarence Taylor. As my dissertation advisor he was unfailingly supportive of my intellectual pursuits and of me as an emerging scholar. Clarence gave me the benefit of his extensive knowledge of the civil rights and Black Power movements in New York City. He was more than merely a dissertation supervisor, however. Clarence was truly a mentor, discussing other aspects of the profession with me and making sure that I was developing as a person and a scholar. Joshua Freeman was also unswervingly supportive of my dissertation, telling me that I was looking at the civil rights movement in a “productive” way at a moment when I most needed to hear that. He never failed, however, to turn his sharp critical eye toward my work as he read every page at every stage of the writing process. The final product is all the better for it. I would next like to thank the remaining members of my dissertation committee: Carol Berkin, Jeanne Theoharis, and Robyn Spencer. Carol has nurtured my academic and personal development since I first entered graduate school. I respect her immensely as a scholar, teacher, and person. It has also been great to begin to get to know Jeanne and Robyn, who both graciously agreed to serve on my committee. I appreciate the vi attention you both paid to the future potential contributions of this dissertation to our growing knowledge of the civil rights movement. Both of you have pushed me to think in more expansive ways about every facet of my work. I look forward to developing my relationships with both of you. Completing the dissertation would have been even more difficult without the wonderful colleagues and friends that I have acquired along the way. They have been responsible for the good times I remember from graduate school. Carla DuBose, Anthony DeJesus, Kevin McGruder, and Carrie Pitzulo, have been particularly special to me as they—along with my best friend Melvin Coston—have been my “crew” ever since they entered the program. I love each one of them unconditionally. Additionally, there have been many other colleagues over the years that have been editors, sounding boards, mentors, and friends. Thank you David Aliano, Angelo Angelis, Matthew Cotter, Mara Drogan, David Golland, Sheryl Gordon, Kate Hallgren- Sgambettera, Steven Levine, Teresita Levy-Lapidus, Leyla Mei, Delia Mellis, Alejandro Quintana, Joseph Sramek, Ryan Swihart, and Luke Waltzer. I also want to be sure to thank the various archives and libraries that I made use of in preparing this manuscript. The staff at the Library of Congress was unfailingly knowledgeable, helpful, and courteous, making it a place I always enjoyed working at. The Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture is an invaluable repository for the studying of African American history. Stephen Fullwood has been especially helpful to me during my time researching there. I look forward to mining their materials even more in the coming months and years. I also appreciate the assistance I received at the Bird Library at Syracuse University, the Fiorello H. Laguardia and Robert F. Wagner Archives at LaGuardia Community College, the Oral History vii Research Office at Columbia University, and the Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives at New York University. Finally, but perhaps most importantly, I want to thank my family for their undying support. My father, Kevin Burrell, has always been supportive of my endeavors and has always challenged me to articulate myself in the clearest way possible. Thank you. My sister, Kelli Burrell, has been a silent supporter of me throughout my entire life. Even though we have had our differences in the past, I know that when the chips are down my sister is in my corner. And I am in hers. Thank you. And to my mother, April Burrell, I offer all that I am. No one has done more for me throughout my life than her. The depth of her devotion to her children is unsurpassed. Even though I have often been selfish, she has never been. I am proud to call her my mom. I only hope that she is proud to call me her son. Thank you. viii Table of Contents Abstract iv Acknowledgements vi Introduction Rainbows and Waves 1 Chapter 1 “These are the Interconnections of History” 21 Chapter 2 Formations 57 Chapter 3 Brightening and Dimming Optimism 97 Chapter 4 Racial Liberals Work to Maintain Relevance 142 Chapter 5 Crossroads: The Seasons of Our Discontent 165 Chapter 6 Crossroads: Where Do We Go From Here? 214 Conclusion 249 Bibliography 255 ix Introduction Waves and Rainbows Negroes did actually think things and did actually agree and disagree and did actually have allegiance to or hostility towards each other on the basis of what classes they were from and what parts of the country they were from and whether or not they were actually natives or came into this country with all the prejudices that black colonials could have toward the black descendants of people who had been central to the making of American culture. Stanley Crouch1 The renowned musical and cultural critic, Stanley Crouch, made the observation that “Negroes did actually think things and did actually agree and disagree” in discussing Harold Cruse’s intellectual contributions to African American life and culture. He made this somewhat sarcastic statement for multiple reasons.