CRITICAL METALS HANDBOOK Critical Metals Handbook Edited by Gus Gunn British Geological Survey Keyworth Nottingham UK Published in collaboration with the British Geological Survey This work is a co-publication between the American Geophysical Union and Wiley This edition first published 2014 © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd This work is a co-publication between the American Geophysical Union and Wiley Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. 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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Critical metals handbook/edited by Gus Gunn. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-67171-9 (cloth) 1. Metals–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Gunn, Gus, 1951- TA459.C75 2014 669–dc23 2013022393 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Cover image: The Spor Mountain open-pit beryllium mine in Utah operated by Materion Brush Natural Resources Inc. (Courtesy of Materion Corp.) Cover design by Steve Thompson Set in 9/11.5pt Trump Mediaeval by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India 1 2014 Contents List of Contributors, xi Policy issues, 38 Acknowledgements, xiii Notes, 39 References, 39 1 Metal resources, use and criticality, 1 T.E. Graedel, Gus Gunn and Luis Tercero 3 Recycling of (critical) metals, 41 Espinoza Christian Hagelüken The geology and technology of metals, 1 Rationale and benefits, 41 Key concepts, 1 The urban mine, 41 Definitions and terminology, 3 Recycling benefits, 43 Will we run out of minerals?, 5 Status and challenges of recycling critical Geological assessment, 6 metals, 45 Considerations of supply and demand, 6 The metals life cycle, 45 Recycling and reuse of metals, 9 Waste and resource legislation, 47 The concept of criticality, 10 The recycling value chain, 47 Assessments of criticality, 11 Recycling challenges, 48 Improving criticality assessment, 14 The seven conditions for effective Implications of criticality for corporate and recycling, 50 governmental policy, 16 Recycling technologies, 51 Outlining this book, 16 Collection and pre-processing, 52 Acknowledgements, 17 Metallurgical recovery, 54 Note, 18 Status of recycling of the EU critical References, 18 metals, 57 The significance of life-cycle 2 The mining industry and the supply of structures, 58 critical minerals, 20 Case study 1: Industrial PGM David Humphreys applications, 59 Suppliers of minerals – miners and Case study 2: Automotive PGM explorers, 21 applications, 60 Industry dynamics, 23 Case study 3: Electronic PGM Constraints on mineral supply response, 27 applications, 60 Natural constraints, 27 Global flows of old products, 60 Economic constraints, 29 Differences in recycling rates and Institutional constraints, 31 pathways for improvement, 61 Critical minerals and the role of China, 34 Conclusion and the way forward, 62 vi Contents Innovation needs, 62 Uses of beryllium, 100 Resource security as a societal driver for Alloys containing less than 2% beryllium, recycling, 64 especially copper–beryllium, 101 Mining and recycling as complementary Pure beryllium metal and alloys containing systems, 64 over 60% beryllium, 102 Conclusions, 66 Beryllia (BeO) ceramics, 103 Notes, 66 World production, 103 References, 67 World trade, 105 World resources, 106 4 Antimony, 70 Mineralogy of beryllium, 106 Ulrich Schwarz-Schampera Beryllium deposits, 107 Introduction, 70 Pegmatite deposits, 107 Definitions and characteristics, 70 Hydrothermal deposits, 110 Abundance in the Earth, 71 Mining and processing of beryllium, 110 Mineralogy, 71 Beryl ores, 110 Major deposit classes, 72 Bertrandite ores, 110 Gold–antimony (epithermal) deposits, 74 Processing of beryl and bertrandite to Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein beryllium hydroxide, 111 and carbonate replacement deposits, 77 Production of metal and alloys from Reduced magmatic gold systems, 78 beryllium hydroxide, 113 Extraction methods and processing, 78 Production of beryllium oxide from Mining, 78 beryllium hydroxide, 113 Ore processing, beneficiation and Recycling, 115 conversion to metal, 79 Substitution, 116 Specifications, 82 Environmental aspects, 116 Uses, 82 Prices, 118 Antimony trioxide, 84 Outlook, 118 Sodium antimonate, 84 Note, 119 Other non-metallurgical uses, 85 References, 119 Antimony metal, 85 Recycling, 85 6 Cobalt, 122 Substitution, 86 Stephen Roberts and Gus Gunn Resources and reserves, 86 Introduction, 122 Production, 87 Physical and chemical properties, 122 Projects under development, 90 Distribution and abundance in the World trade, 91 Earth, 122 Prices, 92 Mineralogy, 122 Environmental aspects, 94 Deposit types, 123 Outlook, 95 Hydrothermal deposits, 123 References, 96 Magmatic deposits, 129 Laterites, 130 5 Beryllium, 99 Manganese nodules and cobalt-rich David L. Trueman and Phillip Sabey ferromanganese crusts on the Introduction, 99 seafloor, 132 Properties of beryllium, 99 Extraction, processing and Distribution and abundance in the Earth’s refining, 134 crust, 100 Cobalt from nickel sulfide ores, 134 Contents vii Cobalt from nickel laterite ores, 134 Outlook, 170 Cobalt from copper–cobalt ores in DRC Acknowledgements, 171 and Zambia, 135 References, 172 Other sources of cobalt, 136 World production and trade, 138 Resources and reserves, 139 8 Germanium, 177 Uses, 140 Frank Melcher and Peter Buchholz Recycling, 142 Introduction, 177 Substitution, 142 Physical and chemical properties, 177 Environmental issues, 143 Distribution and abundance in the Prices, 144 Earth, 177 Outlook, 144 Mineralogy, 178 Acknowledgements, 146 Deposit types, 179 Notes, 146 Accumulation of germanium in sulfide References, 146 deposits, 181 Enrichment of germanium in lignite and 7 Gallium, 150 coal, 185 Thomas Butcher and Extraction methods, processing and Teresa Brown beneficiation, 186 Introduction, 150 Extraction, 186 Physical and chemical Processing, 186 properties, 150 Specifications, 188 Mineralogy and distribution, 150 Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl4, 188 Sources of gallium, 151 Germanium dioxide, GeO2, 188 Bauxite, 151 First reduction metal, 188 Sphalerite (ZnS), 151 Production of zone-refined metal Other geological settings, 152 (‘intrinsic’ metal), 188 Recovery methods and refining, 152 Single crystals, 188 Primary recovery, 152 Uses, 189 Secondary recovery, 153 Recycling, re-use and resource Refining and purification, 155 efficiency, 189 Gallium in GaAs semiconductors, 155 Substitution, 191 Specifications and uses, 157 Environmental aspects of the Gallium metal, 157 life cycle of germanium and its Gallium antimonide, 157 products, 192 Gallium arsenide, 157 Resources and reserves, 192 Gallium chemicals, 159 Production, 194 Gallium nitride, 160 Future supplies, 196 Gallium phosphide, 162 World trade, 197 Photovoltaics, 162 Prices, 197 Substitution, 163 Outlook, 198 Environmental aspects, 163 Supply challenges, 198 World resources and production, 164 Demand drivers, 199 Production in 2010, 164 Supply and demand scenario, 200 Future supplies, 166 Acknowledgments, 200 World trade, 167 Notes, 200 Prices, 167 References, 200 viii Contents 9 Indium, 204 Extraction methods and processing, 236 Ulrich Schwarz-Schampera Specification and uses, 238 Introduction, 204 Recycling, 240 Physical and chemical properties, 204 Substitution, 240 Abundance in the Earth’s crust, 205 Environmental factors, 241 Mineralogy, 205 World resources and production, 241 Major deposit classes, 206 Reserves and resources, 241 Base-metal sulfide deposits, 209 Production, 244 Polymetallic vein-type deposits, 209 Current producers, 245 Base-metal-rich