Ceylon Journal of Science 49(2) 2020: 173-184 DOI: http://doi.org/10.4038/cjs.v49i2.7738 RESEARCH ARTICLE Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. alters Structure and composition of native forests: A study from moist evergreen forests in Sri Lanka M.P.T. Wijewickrama1,*, W.A.I.P. Karunaratne2, D.S.A. Wijesundara3 and H.M.S.P. Madawala4 1Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 2Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 3National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hantana Road, Kandy, Sri Lanka. 4Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Received: 18/10/2019 ; Accepted: 20/04/2020 Abstract: Studies to evaluate consequences of native species INTRODUCTION showing invasive behaviour are rather scarce in the tropics. Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss., a native bamboo species, expands The exotic invasive species are known to alter vegetation populations in its native range causing changes to the appearance and ecosystem processes in their introduced habitats of forests in dry and intermediate zones of Sri Lanka. The study and had been widely studied under various soil-climatic evaluated the impacts of B. bambos spread in Tropical Moist conditions (Hulme, 2007; Richardson et al., 2000; Evergreen Forests (TMEFs) in Sri Lanka. A vegetation study was Vila et al., 2009). In recent times, it was noted that even carried out in forest patches with and without bamboo (B+ and some native species are showing the ability to expand B-) from three study sites viz., Galboda (GAL), Moragolla (MOR) populations causing potentially negative impacts on their and Maragomuwa (MAR) located in the Intermediate Zone of the home range vegetation (Bai et al., 2016; Prematilleke et al., island. Six 100 m2 quadrats were eramarked at different distances 2015). When native and/or endemic species expand their from the forest edge towards the forest interior along three populations similar to their exotic counterparts, it is aptly transects in each B+ and B- forest communities per site totaling coined as ‘over-abundance’ or ‘over-dominance’ rather 108 quadrats (2 forest communities B+ and B- × 3 transects × 6 than ‘invasion’ solely to evade any disputes in definitions distances × 3 sites = 108). Due to high site-specific differences, (Garrot et al., 1993). Though ecological impacts of exotic the results were analyzed and presented site-wise. Of the total of invasive species are well known (Maranho and Salimon 127 species, 35 (27.6%) and 20 (15.7%) species were exclusively 2015), comparatively few studies have been conducted found in B+ and B-, respectively. The endemics were constantly so far to evaluate potential impacts of native/endemic more abundant in bamboo-free forest patches. The analyses also species displaying invasive behavior (Carey et al., 2012; revealed a high dissimilarity of species compositions between Valery et al., 2013). Thus, scientists have highlighted the B+ and B- forest communities. The mortality incidences were importance of gathering information on potential weedy significantly greater in bamboo-forests, possibly due to frequent species in native ranges as this information can be useful fires aided by high accumulation of light bamboo litter. Despite in introducing effective management interventions to no consistent differences between B+ and B- communities in rehabilitate affected ecosystems (Hufbauer and Torchin all study sites due to high heterogeneity, the results indicate 2008). that B. bambos has shown the potential to alter the composition There is growing number of studies in the northeast and structure of these native forests through bamboo-driven Asian region exploring potential impacts of expanding modifications to micro-environmental conditions of these forests. populations of native bamboo species in their home ranges Thus, the study highlights the importance of more comprehensive (Lima et al., 2012; Canavan et al., 2017). Bamboos are studies to explore long-term impacts of B. bambos in native known to become weedy in both their native and introduced forests in the region and to introduce measures to mitigate some of habitats and the threats are almost similar irrespective of these negative impacts. The underlying causes of high mortality their status of origin (native or exotic) (Canavan et al., incidences should also be further investigated as it may leads to 2019). Due to their inherently rapid growth, bamboos are the decline of the quality of these native forests. generally considered as pioneers in forest successions (Larpkern, 2005), and at the same time recognize them as Keywords: over-dominance; tropical moist evergreen forests; Sri perpetrators of arresting the natural succession (Griscom Lanka; Bambusa bambos; mortality and Ashton, 2013). The bamboos often display superior growth over their native counterparts due to their inherent traits such as the production of ample amount of seeds, rapid clonal growth (Lima et al., 2012) and high competition for limited resources (nutrients and water). These traits help *Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected] https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8020-1093 This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 174 Ceylon Journal of Science 49(2) 2020: 173-184 bamboos to thrive under challenging conditions, ultimately MATERIALS AND METHODS triggering population expansions once the conditions altered as a result of natural and human-induced activities Study Area (Canavan et al., 2017). Despite the reputation as one of The study was conducted in Tropical Moist Evergreen the plant groups with highly ‘invasive’ species, there is a forests (TMEFs) located along the northern borders of dearth of information on ecological impacts on their native the Central Province of Sri Lanka, which belonged to the vegetation (Buckingham et al., 2011; Space and Flynn northern intermediate floristic region of the island (Ashton 2000), especially in forest ecosystems (Levine et al., 2004). and Gunatilleke, 1987). The TMEF is the major forest type According to studies, bamboos have shown tendencies in the Intermediate Zone of the island, and are dominated to alter the structure and function of native vegetation by Mangifera zeylanica, Canarium zeylanicum, Filicium through competitive exclusion of other co-occurring decipiens, Dimorcarpus longan, Nothopegia beddomei native species (Dutta and Reddy 2016; Kobayashi et al., and Gironniera parvifolia. Anacardiaceae, Sapindaceae, 2015; Kudo et al., 2011; Lima et al., 2012; Rother et Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae are the most dominant al., 2016; Suzuki, 2015; Tokuoka et al., 2015; Yang et al., families (Gunatilleke et al., 2008). The three strata 2015). Bamboos also inflict physical damages to the forest identified in TMEFs include the canopy (20 - 25 m), sub- canopy potentially ensuing tree mortality, reducing basal canopy/shrub layer (5 - 10 m), and the ground vegetation. area and hindering seedling recruitment (Griscom and The mature forests show more or less a continuous canopy Ashton, 2006). Vegetation losses are also reported due to with relatively sparse ground vegetation. The mean annual wild fires facilitated by high accumulation of litter following temperature in the Intermediate Zone is in the range of synchronous flowering and death cycles in bamboo (Rayle 22.5° – 25.0 °C with an annual rainfall of 2,000 – 2,500 et al., 2015). While some studies conclude that the higher mm. The area receives rainfall mainly from the north- abundance of bamboos may decrease species richness east monsoons, with an extended dry period from April to (Castro et al., 2013), others demonstrate their facilitative September (Somasekeram, 1988). The topography of the role in increasing the same (Silveira, 1999). The low tree area is classified as flat to gentle slopes. The landscape densities reported in bamboo-dominated forests have been features in the area are markedly influenced by the Knuckles attributed to seed limitations following the over-dominance Mountain Range (IUCN, 2007). The geology of the area of a single species (Rother et al., 2009). is of Highland Series from the pre Cambrian era. Reddish Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. is a native of south and brown earths and immature brown loams are the major soil south-east Asia with a wide distribution in the tropics. types along with erosional remnants (Somasekaram, 1988; Bambusa has also been identified as one of the genera that Panabokke, 1996). contain most of the listed invasive species (Canavan et al., Study sites 2016). It prefers a humid tropical climate with a low to moderate elevation (< than 1,000 m) and a rainfall of 2,000 Three representative forest patches with bamboo (B+) were - 2,500 mm (Sarojam and Kumar, 2001). In Sri Lanka, selected from three different locations in close proximity its distribution has stretched from the Intermediate Zone viz., Galboda (GAL), Moragolla (MOR) and Maragomuwa to the immediate margins of the Dry Zone of the island, (MAR). The study sites are situated approximately 2 - 6 km particularly creating a patchy distribution with an affinity apart from each other (Figure 2). Three comparable forest to alter the structure and composition of native forests patches without bamboo (B-) were also selected from (Figure 1). respective locations for comparison. The three study sites