Ecological Baselines of the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific Status of Marine Biodiversity and Anthropogenic Pressures in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction Citation Boteler, B., Wanless, R., Dias, M., Packeiser, T., Awad, A., Yannicelli, B., Zapata Padilla, L.A., Aburto, J., Seeger, I., Hampton, S., Jackson, L., Wienrich, N., Ajagbe, A., Hazin, C., Castellanos Galindo, G.A., German Naranjo, L., Fredy Suárez, C., Prussmann, J., Valenzuela, S., Gomez Giraldo, L.S., Higgins, M.L., Contreras, C., Luna, G., Luna, N., Munizaga, M., Sellanes, J., Tapia, C., Thiel, M., ‘Ecological Baselines for the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific: Status of Marine Biodiversity and Anthropogenic Pressures in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction’, STRONG High Seas Project, 2019. Authors Ross Wanless, Maria Dias, Ademola Ajagbe and Carolina Hazin – BirdLife International Adnan Awad, Shannon Hampton and Lynn Jackson – International Ocean Institute – South Africa (IOI-SA) Ben Boteler, Isabel Seeger and Nicole Wienrich – Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies (IASS) Luis Alonso Zapata Padilla, Gustavo Adolfo Castellanos Galindo, Luis German Naranjo, César Fredy Suárez, Johanna Prussmann, Sandra Valenzuela, Luz Stella Gomez Giraldo and Mary Lou Higgins – WWF Colombia Tim Packeiser – WWF Germany Beatriz Yannicelli, Jaime Aburto, Catalina Contreras, Guillermo Luna, Nicolás Luna, Martín Munizaga, Javier Sellanes, Carlos Tapia and Martin Thiel – Universidad Católica del Norte (UCN) With contributions from Fernando Felix – Secretariat of the Comisión Permanente del Pacífico Sur (CPPS) Shane Griffiths – Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) Sarah Poulin and Corrie Curtice – Marine Geospatial Ecology Lab, Duke University, and Daniel Dunn – University of Queensland Sandor Muslow – Universidad Austral de Chile (UACH) Design and Layout Ben Boteler and Carole Durussel – Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies (IASS) Editing Ben Boteler, Isabel Seeger and Carole Durussel – Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies (IASS) The STRONG High Seas project is part of the International Climate Initiative (IKI; www.international-climate- initiative.com/en/). The Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) supports this initiative on the basis of a decision adopted by the German Bundestag. The STRONG High Seas project contributes to the work of the Partnership for Regional Ocean Governance (PROG), a partnership hosted by UN Environment, the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies (IASS), the Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations (IDDRI), and TMG – Think Tank for Sustainability. © STRONG High Seas 2019. STRONG High Seas, an independent scientific project, is responsible for the content of this publication. This report does not necessarily reflect the views of the funding agencies. www.prog-ocean.org/our-work/strong-high-seas/ DOI: 10.2312/iass.2019.061 © Cover Photo: Matt Howard (248418)/Unsplash Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the following reviewers for their valuable input and feedback: Daniel Dunn – University of Queensland Fernando Felix – Secretariat of the Comisión Permanente del Pacífico Sur (CPPS) Osvaldo Urrutia Silva – Southeast Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation (SPRFMO) Carmen E. Morales – Instituo Milenio de Oceanografía (IMO-Chile), Departamento de Oceanografía, Universidad de Concepción, Chile Table of Contents 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………… 4 2. Status of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction in the Southeast Atlantic and the Southeast Pacific…………………………………………………………………………………. 9 2.1 Areas of Special Ecological Importance……………………………………………….. 10 2.2 Areas of Geological Importance………………………………………………………… 17 2.3 Seabed Habitats (benthic)……………………………………………………………….. 20 2.4 Water Column Habitats (pelagic)……………………………………………………….. 23 2.5 Fish……………………………………………………………………………………….... 25 2.6 Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles……………………………………………………… 30 2.7 Seabirds…………………………………………………………………………………… 36 2.8 Summary of Status………………………………………………………………………. 41 3. Pressures on Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction in the Southeast Atlantic and the Southeast Pacific………………………………………………………………………………… 42 3.1 Extraction of Fish and Species Removal………………………………………………. 44 3.2 Physical Disturbance to and Destruction of the Seabed…………………………….. 54 3.3 Marine Pollution………………………………………………………………………….. 57 3.4 Underwater Energy………………………………………………………………………. 66 3.5 Climate Change…………………………………………………………………………... 69 3.6 Summary of Pressures…………………………………………………………………… 72 4. Outlook……………………………………………………………………………………………... 74 5. References…………………………………………………………………………………………. 77 Annex……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 94 List of Figures Figure 1 Trends in Gross World Product, Overfishing and Ocean Pollution……………………………………….. 4 Figure 2 Focal Regions of the STRONG High Seas Project…………………………………………………………... 6 Figure 3 Areas of Special Ecological Importance in the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific…………….. 13 Figure 4 A Cross-section through the Earth’s Crust Showing the Different Types of Plate Boundary, the Topography of the Ocean Floor and the Distribution of the Major Metal-rich Deep Ocean Mineral Deposits…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17 Figure 5 World Map Showing the Location of the Three Main Marine Mineral Deposits………………………… 19 Figure 6 Seamounts and Knolls in the Southeast Pacific and Southeast Atlantic…………………………………. 21 Figure 7 Active Hydrothermal Vents in the Southeast Pacific and Southeast Atlantic…………………………….. 22 Figure 8 Marine Food Chain Levels……………………………………………………………………………………… 26 Figure 9 Relative Possibilities of Occurrence of Tuna Species in the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific 27 Figure 10 Relative Probabilities of Occurrence of Sailfish and Swordfish Species in the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific………………………………………………………………………………………………… 28 Figure 11 Megafauna Species Richness………………………………………………………………………………….. 30 Figure 12 Observed Fishing Effort and Number of Sea Turtle Bycatch by Species in all Taiwanese Longline Fleets in the Atlantic Ocean…………………………………………………………………………………….. 31 Figure 13 The MiCO System Interface Displaying Migratory Connectivity of Leatherback Sea Turtles…………. 32 Figure 14 Migration of Humpback Whales from Ecuador to Antarctic Waters……………………………………….. 34 Figure 15 Migration of Blue Whales from Chile North…………………………………………………………………… 35 Figure 16 Number of Globally threatened Seabird Species Classified as Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered in the IUCN Red List in the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific…………………….. 36 Figure 17 Number of Seabird Species Occurring in the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific……………….. 37 Figure 18 Location of Marine Confirmed and Candidate IBAs in the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific... 38 Figure 19 Spatial Cumulative Human Impacts……………………………………………………………………………. 43 Figure 20 Catch by Taxon in Tons in ABNJ of the Southeast Atlantic in 2014………………………………………. 45 Figure 21 Top Ten Fish Types Caught in ABNJ in the Southeast Atlantic in 2014………………………………….. 46 Figure 22 Fishing Effort in the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific (2012-2016)……………………………… 46 Figure 23 Status of Stocks in the Southeast Atlantic…………………………………………………………………….. 47 Figure 24 IUU Fishing Risk in the EEZs of 23 West African Countries……………………………………………….. 48 Figure 25 Catch by Taxon in 1000 Tons in ABNJ of the Southeast Pacific…………………………………………… 49 Figure 26 Top Ten Oceanic Species Caught in the Southeast Pacific in 2015………………………………………. 50 Figure 27 Fishing Activity by Vessels Broadcasting AIS………………………………………………………………… 50 Figure 28 Stock Status Plots Assessed by Number of Stocks in the FAO Area 87 since 1950…………………….. 51 Figure 29 Estimated Changes in Annual Values for Seven Ecological Indicators after the Simulation of Four Hypothetical Scenarios Changing the Effort of the Purse-seine Fishery on Floating Objects (OBJ) over a 10-year Period Initiated in 2017 and Concluding in 2027………………………………………….. 52 Figure 30 Ecosim Predicted Relative Changes in the Biomass of Key Functional Groups Representing Primary Target Species, Byproduct, and Bycatch of the Purse-seine Fishery in the Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean in 2027 relative to 2017 under Four Hypothetical Management Scenarios……………………… 53 Figure 31 Submarine Cables in the Southeast Atlantic and Southeast Pacific……………………………………….. 55 Figure 32 The Accumulation of Floating Material after 30 Years of Simulated Input and Circulation……………... 58 Figure 33 Survey Locations Benthic Litter Densities and Composition for Individual Submarine Features Observed by Remotely Operated Vehicle Video Systems………………………………………………….. 61 Figure 34 Types and Density of Marine Debris in Different Sectors of the Central Southeast Pacific in 2015 and 2016………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 63 Figure 35 Maritime Traffic Density in the Southeast Atlantic and the Southeast Pacific……………………………. 66 Figure 36 Forecasted Growth in TEUs – Global Container Ships (number of TEUs)………………………………. 67 Figure 37 Audiogram for Selected Species and Ship Types……………………………………………………………. 68 List of Tables Table 1 A Summary of the State of Knowledge for Selected Contaminants……………………………………….. 65 Table 2 Comparison of Criteria for Various Areas of Special Ecological Importance……………………………. 94 List of Boxes Box 1 Human Activities in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction……………………………………………………. 5 Box 2 Migratory Connectivity of Leatherback Sea Turtles in the Southeast Atlantic Ocean…………………. 32 Box