SURVIVAL STRATEGIES OF PEOPLE IN A SRI LANKAN WETLAND Livelihood, Health and Nature Conservation in Muthurajawela Anneke Hoogvorst Promotor: Prof. Dr. A. Niehof Hoogleraar Sociologie van Consumenten en Huishoudens, Wageningen Universiteit Samenstelling promotiecommissie: Prof. Dr. Ir. G. E. Frerks, Wageningen Universiteit Prof. Dr. J.D.M. Van der Geest, Universiteit van Amsterdam Dr. F. Konradsen, University of Copenhagen, Denmark Dr. G.A. Persoon, Universiteit Leiden SURVIVAL STRATEGIES OF PEOPLE IN A SRI LANKAN WETLAND Livelihood, Health and Nature Conservation in Muthurajawela Anneke Hoogvorst Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit, prof. dr. ir. L. Speelman, in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 23 september 2003 des namiddags te half twee in de aula. ISBN 90-5808-859-6 Contents LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ....................................................................................... 5 FOREWORD............................................................................................................................ 7 ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. 9 1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 11 1.1 The marsh and lagoon communities............................................................................. 11 1.2 Ecological context ....................................................................................................... 12 1.3 Conceptualisation ......................................................................................................... 12 1.4 Research questions and set-up...................................................................................... 13 1.5 Structure of the thesis................................................................................................... 14 2 GENERAL INFORMATION ON SRI LANKA ......................................................... 17 2.1 Population and ethnic groups ....................................................................................... 17 2.2 Political history and the government............................................................................ 17 2.3 Economy....................................................................................................................... 19 2.4 Education...................................................................................................................... 19 2.5 Health ........................................................................................................................... 19 2.6 Land tenure................................................................................................................... 21 3 WETLANDS................................................................................................................... 23 3.1 Changing views on wetlands........................................................................................ 23 3.2 Wetland loss .................................................................................................................24 3.3 Ramsar Convention and the wise use of wetlands ....................................................... 25 3.4 Wetlands in Sri Lanka .................................................................................................. 27 4 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK........................................................................ 29 4.1 Emergence of livelihood as a concept.......................................................................... 29 4.2 The livelihood framework............................................................................................ 30 4.3 Strategies and time ....................................................................................................... 32 4.4 Vulnerability and sustainability.................................................................................... 33 4.5 Defining households..................................................................................................... 34 4.6 Households, livelihood and gender .............................................................................. 35 4.7 Emic and etic................................................................................................................37 4.8 Disease and illness........................................................................................................ 38 4.9 The household production of health............................................................................. 39 4.10 The natural environment ........................................................................................... 40 4.11 Conceptual matrix ..................................................................................................... 41 5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY........................................................ 43 5.1 Literature study.............................................................................................................44 5.2 Quantitative data collection.......................................................................................... 44 5.3 Qualitative data collection............................................................................................ 47 5.4 Time schedule of the research...................................................................................... 48 6 THE RESEARCH AREA: HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS, AND CONSERVATION ......................................................................................................... 49 6.1 General characteristics ................................................................................................. 49 6.2 History of Muthurajawela ............................................................................................ 49 6.3 Physical characteristics and environmental profile of Muthurajawela ........................ 52 6.4 Threats to the ecosystem .............................................................................................. 53 6.5 The value of Muthurajawela......................................................................................... 54 6.6 Conservation management ........................................................................................... 56 7 PEOPLE FROM THE MARSH ................................................................................... 61 7.1 The habitat of the marsh dwellers ................................................................................ 61 1 7.2 The marsh dwellers ...................................................................................................... 63 7.3 The resettlers of Awarakatuwa..................................................................................... 66 7.4 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................68 8 PEOPLE FROM THE LAGOON ................................................................................ 71 8.1 The habitat of the lagoon dwellers ............................................................................... 71 8.2 Among fishermen......................................................................................................... 72 8.3 Sea-fishing as a source of livelihood............................................................................ 73 8.4 Lagoon-fishing as a source of livelihood ..................................................................... 75 8.5 Harmful fishing methods.............................................................................................. 78 8.6 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................78 9 LIVELIHOODS IN THE WETLAND......................................................................... 81 9.1 Household composition................................................................................................ 81 9.2 Livelihood resources .................................................................................................... 82 9.3 Household resources..................................................................................................... 83 9.4 Household assets .......................................................................................................... 84 9.5 Illegal coping mechanisms ........................................................................................... 90 9.6 Coping with ‘evil liquids’ ............................................................................................ 92 9.7 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................94 10 WETLAND WOMEN AND LIVELIHOOD............................................................... 97 10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 97 10.2 Livelihood and female household heads in Muthurajawela...................................... 98 10.3 Employment overseas................................................................................................ 99 10.4 Wetland women as mothers .................................................................................... 101 10.5 Conclusions 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