Conservation Psychology Conservation Psychology Understanding and promoting human care for nature Second Edition Susan Clayton and Gene Myers This edition first published 2015 ©2015 by John Wiley & SonsLtd First edition published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd 2009 Registered office: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance withtheUK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. 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Photo courtesy of Nooksack Salmon Enhancement Association & Phil Humphries Typeset in 10/12pt AGaramondPro by SPi Global, Chennai, India. 1 2015 Contents Preface to the Second Edition xi About the Companion Website xiii 1 Introducing the Field of Conservation Psychology 1 Conservation 2 Psychology 3 Human care for nature 5 The roots of conservation psychology 7 The utility of conservation psychology 8 The practice of conservation psychology 10 The organization of the book 11 Conclusion 12 For further information, visit these websites 13 References 13 PART I HUMAN EXPERIENCES OF NATURE 2 Domestic Nature: Cohabiting with Animals and Plants 17 Animals in the home 17 History and variations in pet-keeping 18 Relationships with pets 19 Health and well-being effects of domestic animals 23 Social effects of companion animals 25 Robotic animals 27 Connections with nature 28 Plants in the domestic sphere 29 Effects of indoor plants 29 Window views of nature 31 vi Contents Plant-facilitated therapy 31 Experience and effects of gardening 32 Conclusion 34 References 35 3 Managed Nature: Zoos, Aquariums, and Public Parks 41 Zoos and aquariums 42 Reasons for visiting 43 Visitors’ experience of the zoo 45 Impact on environmental knowledge and concern 46 Maximizing the experience 48 Urban parks and green spaces 50 Parks and human well-being 52 Children and green space 53 Conclusion 55 References 55 4 Wild Nature: Encounters with Wilderness 60 Defining wild nature and wilderness 60 Wilderness use and wilderness values 62 Wilderness solitude 64 Natural forces and features 66 Wildfire 67 Natural disasters 67 Wild animals: attitudes and experience 69 The edge of control: wilderness remoteness and challenge 73 Activity in wild nature, connection, and caring 76 Wild nature and spiritual experience 78 Wilderness-based growth and therapeutic programs 81 Conclusion 82 References 83 PART II THINKING ABOUT NATURE 5 Attitudes, Values, and Perceptions 93 Core understandings of nature 93 Values 94 Attitudes 98 Perceptions 101 Evolutionary perspectives 104 Conclusion 109 References 109 6 Perceptions of Environmental Problems 114 Risk perception 114 Contents vii Biases in information processing 118 Language and discourse 120 Understanding environmental problems 121 Attributions of responsibility 124 Linking perceptions to behavior 125 Conclusion 126 References 127 7 Moral Psychology and the Environment 130 Background on ethical concepts 130 Social intuitionism and moral foundations theory 131 A virtue ethics of the environment 134 The deontic tradition and psychological research 141 Contextual differences in moral duties 145 Consequentialism, emotion, and socialization 147 Psychological dynamics of moral functioning 151 Pragmatist ethics 154 Conclusion 156 References 156 8 Environment and Identity 163 The concept of identity 163 Identity development 164 Developing an affiliation with nature 166 Environmental identity 167 Ecopsychology and depth psychology perspectives 169 Measuring environmental identity 170 Place identity 171 Animals and identity 174 Environmental social identity 175 Identity and behavior 177 Putting identity to work 179 Conclusion 181 References 182 PART III ENCOURAGING A SUSTAINABLE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMANS AND NATURE 9 Promoting Sustainable Behavior 191 Identifying target behaviors 191 Influences on behavior 193 External factors 193 Internal factors 198 Models for changing behavior 204 Collective behavior 206 viii Contents Conclusion 208 References 208 10 Community Psychology and International Biodiversity Conservation 212 International biodiversity conservation 213 Common pool resources and models of governance 214 New conceptions of the commons 216 Social capital and its limitations 220 Psychology, culture, and local knowledge 222 Creating ecological knowledge old and new: Traditional and modern citizen science 225 Accounting for the costs and benefits of conservation 228 Psychological costs of displacing populations for conservation 230 Conservation and all-too-human psychology 232 Psychological biases and emotion 232 Illegal trade in threatened and endangered species 233 Conservation, environmental threats, and conflict 235 Conclusion 236 References 237 11 Environmental Education 241 Environmental education 242 The need for environmental education 244 Examples of contemporary environmental education 246 Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) 246 Classroom-based environmental education 247 Place-based education 248 Programs focused on biodiversity 250 Psychological foundations of environmental education 251 Cognitive development, ecology, and environmental knowledge 252 Affective factors and EE 253 Socialization 256 Action, participation, and problem solving 257 Lessons for effective practice 260 Conclusion 261 References 261 12 The Positive Psychology of Conservation 268 Nature as a positive environment 269 Negative emotions in response to environmental challenges 273 Positive emotions in relation to environmental behaviors 275 Eudaimonism and meaning 277 Materialistic values versus self-determination theory 279 Optimism and pessimism 283 Contents ix Self-regulation and expectancies of outcomes 283 Explanatory style 284 Cognitive strategies 285 Optimistic and pessimistic biases in environmental issues 286 Toward strengths-based approaches 286 Human virtue and character strengths 288 Other-praising emotions and positive moral psychology 289 Engagement and creativity 291 Mindfulness 293 Collective flourishing 294 References 296 Glossary 305 Index 311 Preface to the Second Edition The role of psychology in conservation has grown dramatically since the first edition of Conser- vation Psychology. We are delighted by this development, although it has made our attempt to cover the field even more difficult. With this edition of the book, we have accepted the impossi- bility of including everything in this field. Instead, guided by the interests of our likely readers, we have reordered some of the material in a way that we hope will be more accessible and highlighted new developments in applied conservation. We have also described the promising intersection between conservation psychology and positive psychology. As originally, we are grateful to all the people working on this enterprise as well as to the students and practitioners whose interest is driving new research. This edition is dedicated to those who are doing their best to apply psychological insights to conservation practice. About the Companion Website This book is accompanied by a companion website: www.wiley.com/go/clayton/conservation The website includes: • Pdfs of all figures from the book for downloading • Powerpoints of all tables from the book for downloading 1 Introducing the Field of Conservation Psychology • Conservation • Psychology • Human care for nature • The roots of conservation psychology • The utility of conservation psychology • The practice of conservation psychology • The organization of the book • Conclusion • References Humanity faces environmental challenges on every level from local to global.