WOMEN IN JAMAICAN DANCEHALL: Rethinking Jamaican Dancehall through a Women-Centered Informal Economy Approach. by Leslie-Ann Fullerton A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, Social Justice Education Department of Social Justice Education University of Toronto 2017 © Copyright by Leslie-Ann Fullerton 2017 WOMEN IN JAMAICAN DANCEHALL: Rethinking Jamaican Dancehall through a Women-Centered Informal Economy Approach Leslie-Ann Fullerton Master of Arts, Social Justice Education Department of Social Justice Education University of Toronto 2017 Abstract Some academic discussions that address women who participate in Jamaican Dancehall have taken the position that these women lack morality and agency and have internalized sexist norms (Lake 1996). This is because of the overtly sexual nature of the cultural expression. This research project aimed to expand the conversation concerning these women by investigating how female dancehall dancers, models and auxiliaries (designers, beauticians and vendors) make a living from Dancehall's informal economy. Through empirical evidence, this research will suggest that women who participate in Jamaican dancehall have subjectively and economically benefited from the informal economy that is embedded in dancehall. ii Acknowledgments This research could not have come to fruition without the help of many amazing souls. Firstly, let me acknowledge St. Catherine Cooperate Credit Union for giving me my first job as a Client Care Representative. I would also like to thank them for not renewing my contract after three years, which gave me the freedom to earn a living while doing what I loved. Freedom from working at the Credit Union gave me the opportunity to work as a dancehall model. My experience as a dancehall model became a great source of evidence for this research. Secondly, to Freddie James, Meleissa Dunkley-Hamilton, Claudia, Marsha, Kerene (Kerro), Rochelle, Venessa, Shadhaile, Janica, Racquel, Francine, and the rest of the La Crème models, thank you for creating our family. To all the Dancehall Queens, dancers, models, nail techs, and the Dungtown (Downtown) street beauticians who resigned their suspicions of researchers and agreed to be interviewed, Big up unuh flippin self, Goodie! Thank you to Prof. Carolyn Cooper who sent her incomplete and unpublished essay on women, Jamaican dancehall, and the informal economy. My deepest appreciation goes to Prof. Melanie Newton for allowing me to write a paper called Pum Pum Rule Jamaican dancehall as a second-year undergraduate student. Thank you Prof. Alissa Trotz for supervising this thesis. You have helped me realize compartmentalizing my identity in order to be validated by the academe is unnecessary. You are like my Caribbean auntie who set me straight when needed, and remind me that what I have to say is important and pushed me to see the bigger picture. I now understand that what we have to say and speaking for ourselves—not being simultaneously invisible and hypervisible—can significantly impact the we are perceived. To my husband, I know you thought perusing a master’s degree was unnecessary, especially since perusing a career in Law is my ultimate goal. Thank for understanding how important this project is to me. Finally, to my mother, Ms. Shirley, Ms. Fullerton, thanks for all the early morning callaloo runs you made in Dela and Lakes Pen. Even though I sometimes cringe when I see Callaloo, thank you for finding ways to create for us in times of need. I know you would be proud. Yuh wash-belly love yuh.!! iii Contents Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................iii List of Table ........................................................................................................................................................ vii List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................................... viii List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................................... ix Introduction: Chapter One .................................................................................................................................... 1 My Location ...................................................................................................................................................... 1 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................................. 7 Slackness .......................................................................................................................................................... 7 The Research Problem .................................................................................................................................... 10 Research Design ............................................................................................................................................. 11 Chapter Two ....................................................................................................................................................... 14 Methodology: Significance of Patois/Patwah ................................................................................................. 14 Classism and Language .................................................................................................................................. 14 Reflections ...................................................................................................................................................... 18 Demographic Information .............................................................................................................................. 21 Theoretical Concepts: Theorizing Black-Feminism and the Politics of Naming. ............................................. 23 Afro-Jamaican (Caribbean) Women-Centered(ness).................................................................................. 24 Heterogeneity ............................................................................................................................................. 26 Intersectionality .......................................................................................................................................... 27 Chapter Three ..................................................................................................................................................... 28 Mapping Women in Jamaican Dancehall’s Informal Economy. ..................................................................... 28 Construction of Jamaica’s Informal Economy. ............................................................................................... 29 The Evolution of Dancehall ............................................................................................................................. 32 The Rise of Women in Jamaican Dancehall’s Informal Economy ................................................................... 33 Auxiliary Actors: Designers and Beauticians ................................................................................................... 36 Same Dance, Different Roles .......................................................................................................................... 39 Auxiliary: Vendors ....................................................................................................................................... 40 Dancers ....................................................................................................................................................... 41 Dancehall Queen/Divas. ............................................................................................................................. 43 Models ........................................................................................................................................................ 44 iv Persistence of Patriarchy ................................................................................................................................ 45 Messages Through the Body .......................................................................................................................... 46 Chapter Four ....................................................................................................................................................... 52 Additional Resources ...................................................................................................................................... 60 Findings ........................................................................................................................................................... 61 Earning (Benefiting) from Dancehall? ............................................................................................................. 63 Economic Benefit ........................................................................................................................................ 63 Social Capital............................................................................................................................................... 66 Hierarchy and Earning Possibilities ................................................................................................................