Conflict, Disaster and Changing Gender Roles in Nepal: Women’s Everyday Experiences Luna K.C. Thesis committee Promotor Prof. Dr D.J.M. Hilhorst Professor of Humanitarian Aid and Reconstruction Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University, Rotterdam Co-promotors Dr G. van der Haar Assistant Professor, Sociology of Development and Change Group Wageningen University & Research Prof. Dr L. Campbell Professor and Chair Department of Gender, Sexuality, and Women's Studies Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada Other members Prof. Dr BB Bock, Wageningen University & Research Dr F.K. Boersma, V U Amsterdam Dr R. Kurian, Erasmus University, Rotterdam Dr S. Bradshaw, Middlesex University, UK This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School Wageningen School of Social Sciences (WASS) Conflict, Disaster and Changing Gender Roles in Nepal: Women’s Everyday Experiences Luna K.C. Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus, Prof. Dr A.P.J. Mol, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Wednesday 16 January 2019 at 1.30 p.m. in the Aula. Luna K.C. Conflict, Disaster and Changing Gender Roles in Nepal: Women’s Everyday Experiences 183 Pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands (2019) With references, with summaries in English and Dutch ISBN: 978-94-6343-389-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18174/466013 Dedicated to: Women Ex-Combatants and Non-Combatants (Didi/Bahini) of Nepal and my parents Neelam Thapa K.C. and Ram K.C. Acknowledgements This Ph.D. journey would not have been possible without the love, motivation and support of some wonderful people, and organizations. First and foremost, I whole heartedly thank my academic supervisors: Gemma Van Der Haar, Dorothea Hilhorst and Lara Campbell. To Dear Gemma: I am fortunate to have ‘you’ as my daily supervisor. Your academic excellence, exceptional guiding and positive energy ‘you can do that’ kept me inspired throughout this journey. You never hesitated to read/comment my ‘drafts’ which at first did not make sense. You encouraged me to rethink/rewrite and without hurry waited until I came- up with a solid argument. Your critical insights and challenging questions have groomed me to become an independent researcher. You always managed time for me when I needed. Whenever, I went through difficult times you were always there to listen and advice. I also cherish the moments when you visited my field-work in February 2015; ‘travelled by the local bus’ to Chitwan, ‘road blockade’ on our way, ‘auto-rickshaw ride’ to the village to meet women, ‘Rhino/Elephant watch’ and many more. To Dear Thea: You are truly dedicated mentor, not only for your tremendous academic support, but also for constantly believing in my work and allowing me to take this academic challenge. Your excellent academic leadership, encouraging attitude and caring nature always motivated me to stay tuned. Despite of your busy schedules you always accepted my skype requests, promptly read/comment my work and available to discuss/listen every-time I asked for. I still have a fresh memory of our meeting in March 2014 at ‘Himalayan Java-Thamel’ Kathmandu and having ‘momo’, which meant a lot to me. Whenever, I visit this place it recalls of you. To Dear Lara: I am so glad to be supervised by you. Thank you very much for hosting me at SFU and making me a part of your team. I really learned a lot from the courses and the seminars offered at Department of Gender, Sexuality, and Women’s Studies. This was a life-time experience. Your advice on both academic as well as on my career have been precious. You always welcomed me in your office also when I suddenly appeared without appointments. I appreciate all the support you provided, especially during the last stretch of my Ph.D. project and beyond. My heartfelt of thanks to Sangeeta Shrestha, my lifetime mentor. Your ‘big heart’ and unconditional support made possible to take off this journey. I always value your professional as well as personal suggestions and advice. I will forever treasure your friendship, love and care. Thanks again for connecting me with women non-combatants living around Kapan areas of Kathmandu, allowing me to use your office space, internet, and other materials during my Ph.D. field work, and beyond. I also would like to thank entire SLISHA team for all their support. The next person I owe is Wendy Ömerköylu: You are a ‘great manager’ who never hesitated to respond about anything and at anytime. I would like to thank you for all your help you provided me during my stay in the Netherlands as well as in the field, otherwise life would have been much difficult. I enjoyed your company eating lunch, coffee breaks and chatting. Thanks, again for hosting such a memorable ‘summer party’ in the May of 2013 at your lovely house, including taking me for a lovely lake-tour and a boat ride. My heartful of appreciation to all the women ex-combatants and non-combatants who happily shared with me their life-time experiences. Without their help and wiliness to speak to me my Ph.D. on this ‘topic’ would not have been possible. I value the hospitality and care they provided me in the field. I called them in Nepali language Didi and Bahini (elder and younger sisters). I dedicate this thesis to: Women ex-combatants and non-combatants (Didi Bahini). I admire their resilience and perseverance. I am thankful to Mr. Kedar Neupane for introducing me to his colleagues in the Ministry of Peace and Reconstruction-Nepal and helping me to conduct my field work. I also would like to thank the local leaders, individuals and organizations in Nepal who supported my Ph.D. field work. My special thanks to my friends and colleagues at Humanitarian Aid and Reconstruction Special Group: Annisa Srikandini: Thank you very much for being a wonderful friend. Teddy Atim: Thanks for all your support and encouragement that kept me active till the end. I also would like to thank Rose Bashwira, Gloria Nguya, Claude Iguma, Gayathri Lokuge, Jose Diemel, Carolien Jacobs, Winnie W. Wairimu, and Aembe Bwimana for their friendship. My deep appreciation goes to the Sociology of Development and Change Group for hosting me in the team. Especial thanks to Aicha Makoui for assisting me with the last-hour administrative and logistics. I would like to thank Prof. Jennifer Marchbank and Dr. Tiffany Muller Myrdahl for reading my work, providing valuable suggestions, job search advise and many more. Heartful of thanks to Isha Sharma for being a good friend/sister. My gratitude to all my friends and colleagues at Department of Gender, Sexuality, and Women’s Studies, Simon Fraser University for their care and support. I am thankful to my parents: Neelam K.C. and Ram K.C. for their unconditional love and inspiration to follow my dreams. I am grateful to my family: Nishu, Rara, Jubin and Baba for your love, care and patience making my life colourful and meaningful. To: Kalpana Giri, Saranue Sharma and Tripti Belbase, my best friends forever. I am fortunate to have you all in my life and thank you very much for your love and care. You guys are just awesome! Thanks, again yaar. My special thanks to Binod Shahi, Nikesh Shrestha and Rara K.C. for sketching/coloring/ designing this thesis cover. Thanks to Ali Malcom and Dorothy Myers for editing this thesis. Finally, I would like to thank Nuffic (Netherlands Fellowship Program) for their financial support that enable me to pursue this Ph.D. study. Table of Contents Acknowledgements Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Women, Conflict and Post-Conflict Developments in Nepal 2 1.2 The Maoist War and its Aftermath 3 1.3 War, Disaster and Changing Gender Roles in Nepal 8 1.4 War, Disaster and Changing Gender Roles: What are the Questions? 11 1. 5 Research Questions 15 1.6 Studying Changing Gender Roles: Conceptual Framework 16 1.6.1 Sexual Division of Labour and Power Structure 17 1.6.2 Emancipatory Gender Ideology 18 1.6.3 Structural Factors 20 1.6.4 The Role of Policy in Gender Role Change 21 1.7 Thesis Outline 23 1.8 References 25 Chapter 2: Methodology 31 2.1 Study Area 32 2.2 Map of the Study Area 34 2.3 Methodological Choices 34 2.4 Finding Respondents and Negotiating Access 36 2.5 The Women’s Profiles 38 2.6 In-depth Interviewing 39 2.7 Focus Group Discussion 41 2.8 Participant Observation 41 2.9 Key Informant Interviews 42 2.10 Positionality and Reflexivity 42 2.11 Ethical Considerations 46 2.12 Data Management and Analysis 47 2.13 References 48 Chapter 3: Changing Gender Role: Women’s Livelihoods, Conflict and Post-Conflict Security in Nepal 51 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Conceptual Framework: Gender and Power 54 i 3.3 Gender and Women Situation in Nepal: A Historical and Political Context 55 3.4 Research Methodology 57 3.5 Gender Division of Labour and Power: Experience of Women Ex-combatants and Non- Combatants during Maoist Conflict in Nepal 58 3.5.1 Women Ex-Combatants: Experiencing Gender Equality 58 3.5.2 Women Non-Combatants: Replacing Husbands and Fathers 61 3.5.3 Comparing Women Ex-combatants and Non-Combatants: Gender Division of Labour and Power during Maoist Conflict in Nepal 64 3.6 Gender Division of Labour and Power: Experience of Women Ex-Combatants and Non-Combatants in Post-Conflict Nepal 64 3.6.1 Women Ex-Combatants: Re-Integration and (Re-) Marginalization 65 3.6.2 Women Non-Combatants: Maintaining Economic Independence 69 3.6.3 Comparing Women Ex-combatants and