Wageningen Academic Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 2020; 6(3): 231-243 Publishers Gatekeepers in the food industry: acceptability of edible insects H.J. Hunts1, F.V. Dunkel2*, M.J. Thienes3 and N.B. Carnegie4 1Montana State University, Department of Health and Human Development, 222 Herrick Hall, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; 2Montana State University, Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, 119 Plant BioSciences, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; 3Montana State University, Department of Ecology, 310 Lewis Hall, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; 4Montana State University, Department of Mathematics, 240 Wilson Hall, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; [email protected] Received: 26 November 2018 / Accepted: 7 August 2019 © 2019 Wageningen Academic Publishers OPEN ACCESS RESEARCH ARTICLE Abstract For billions of consumers around the world, insects are not only considered edible, they are considered delicious! Currently, in the United States, there is a distinct movement from ‘yuck’ to ‘yum’ in terms of insects as food. This movement towards acceptance can be seen in the market-demand for edible insects, but the pace of the demand is modified by the level to which key gatekeepers in education, research, and the food industry are providing supportive information to consumers. In this paper, we hypothesised that there would be differences in the perceptions of edible insect acceptability across three gatekeeper groups, entomologists (specifically, members of the North Central Branch of the Entomological Society of America), food technologists (specifically, members of the Southern California Institute for Food Technology), and secondary family and consumer sciences teachers (specifically, members of the Montana Association of Family and Consumer Sciences). Further, we hypothesised that nutrition and environmental information would be the most important among entomologists. We exposed each group to information and tasting opportunities. Our findings supported our hypotheses with statistically significant differences using the Fisher’s exact test across the three gatekeeper groups in terms of acceptability (P-values of less than 0.01 in all pairings; P=1.003e-12 overall). We found differences between entomologists and family and consumer sciences (FCS) teachers in the importance of nutrition as a factor (P=0.014) but not between other pairings. Environmental impact information was statistically different across the groups (P=0.024) and statistically significant in FCS teachers compared to the other groups but not food technologists versus entomologists (P=0.95). We offer theoretical reasons why differences exist and offer suggestions on how we can move towards more acceptance among gatekeepers leading to more support for consumer demand. Keywords: preferences, food technologists, entomologists, family consumer sciences, adoption of innovations 1. Introduction food worldwide, nutritional benefits of insects, and low environmental impact of raising insects as a major protein Acceptability of insects as a food source is increasing in the source for humans. This paper explores the concept that United States (USA). In addition to the Native Americans/ significant differences in acceptability of insects as food Alaskan Natives, Asian-Americans, Hispanic-Americans, may exist across groups of gatekeeping professionals in African Americans, and Pacific and Hawaiian Islanders, education, research and the USA food industry and that Americans of European descent are also including insects this might affect these professionals’ sharing of information in their diets. However, the novelty of ready-to-eat insects, about food insects as part of an everyday diet. This concept expense of available products, and associated ‘yuck factor’ may explain similar situations in Canada, Australia, and are important barriers to mainstream adoption of insects Europe. as food in the USA. Consumers may be willing to change their mind about their personal acceptability of insects as Controlling, usually limiting, general access to something food if they are given information about uses of insects as is considered gatekeeping (https://en.oxforddictionaries. ISSN 2352-4588 online, DOI 10.3920/JIFF2018.0045 231 H.J. Hunts et al. com/definition/gatekeeping). Cultural gatekeeping is a insects which is a complete, high quality protein source, that function or system that ignores, controls access to, or places is superior to the maize, sorghum, and millet the locusts a negative value on practices of cultures other than one’s ate. It is not necessary that gatekeepers themselves choose own. In the case of food crops, specifically edible insects, to consume insects. It is necessary that gatekeepers accept this has had serious consequences worldwide, particularly the fact that over 2000 species of insects are deliberately in sub-Saharan Africa in the 20th century (Dunkel, 2017: included in the diets of one third of the world’s human p. 29-34). As early as the 1930’s members of the United population, that is, cultures in Asia, the Americas, Africa, Nations (UN) waged an ‘international war on locusts’ and Australia (Van Huis et al., 2013) and that a new industry (Nature, 1938). For almost 90 years the United Nations in the USA and Europe is trying to emerge based on these Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has focused on cultural practices. Meanwhile the edible insect industry solving malnutrition including stunting and kwashiorkor has entered an exponential growth phase from a worldwide (protein deficiency). A seemingly reasonable approach to value of $ 16 million in 2012, to $ 33 million in 2015, now preventing malnutrition was to try and maximise crop projected by market analysts to grow to $ 523 million in yields. To that end, entomologists from Germany, France, 2023 (GMI, 2017). Work by Meticulous Research (as cited UK, Belgium and the USA waged an ‘international war by Reuters, 2018) suggests that the global edible insect on locusts’ using chemical pesticides. This war cost the market will hit nearly 1.2 billion in 2023. Gatekeepers, international community 600 million USD (United States for example, hold the key to help start new businesses, dollars) for just one of the 3-year campaigns (DeVreyer et fund programs at the United Nations FAO, suggest food al., 2012). A price tag that, at the time, seemed like money legislation that paves the way for this nascent industry well spent. growing exponentially to expand, and make way for insects to be recognised as food in the design of elementary, The war on locusts ignored the fact that edible insects, secondary, and university curricula. primarily locusts, grasshoppers and other orthopterans were important sources of protein and traditional snacks for the Compatibility of an innovation, meaning how an innovation children of sub-Saharan Africa. Apparently unbeknownst fits in with what is normal or acceptable in a social system, to entomologists at the time, local edible insects are far is positively related to its rate of adoption (Rogers, 2003: p. superior in nutrition to the crops that entomologists were 266). In this case the innovation is ‘insect’ and we added trying so desperately to save. For example, more than 21% of an adjective ‘food.’ In traditional ecological knowledge the variegated grasshopper Zonocerus variegatus (Ademolu systems of Europeans and those of European derivation, et al., 2010) is protein whereas raw millet is comprised this is an oxymoron. To understand gatekeeping behaviour of just 11% protein (USDA, 2019). Additionally, there is regarding potential adopters which they influence, we must just 0.08 mg of calcium per gram of raw millet (USDA, understand perceptions of gatekeepers (Rogers, 2003: p. 2019) versus 1.8 mg of calcium per gram of Zonocerus 266). Their perceptions will determine the nature of the variegatus (Ademolu et al., 2010). Other insects, such as diffusion process of an innovation, in this case, food insects. caterpillars, are also effective at preventing stunting and anaemia according to a randomised trial conducted by Who are the gatekeepers? Bauserman et al. (2015) because they are a good source of iron and protein. It is not surprising that caterpillar protein A crucial choice in the entire innovation-development was superior given that raw millet has just 0.03 mg of iron process is the decision to begin diffusing an innovation to per gram (USDA, 2019). potential adopters (Rogers, 2003: p. 155), a decision lying in hands of gatekeepers. A 1995 study by the World Bank (Joffe, 1995) states ‘The rationale for control tends to be based as much on political The primary gatekeeper in the USA is the Food and Drug considerations and emotive arguments as any realistic Administration which regulates insects as food defects assessment of the risks to agricultural production and (contamination of food by insects), in terms of insect derived livelihoods.’ (p. ix). For almost a century, recessionary products (i.e. honey) and as insects as food and feed. Van and plagues larval bands and swarms of locusts have Huis et al. (2013) states ‘Regulatory frameworks governing been documented (Van Huis et al., 2007). Given the rapid food and feed chains have expanded tremendously in the local appearance of swarms and the high, well-balanced last 20 years; however, regulations governing insects as nutritional contents of this meat supply, it seems most food and feed sources are still largely absent. For developed reasonable to traditional mass gathering, drying, and countries, the absence of clear legislation and norms guiding storing techniques for this food and supply (Riley, 1873 as the use of insects as food and feed is among the major cited by Holt, 1885; Van Huis et al., 2013). In this case, the limiting factors hindering the industrial development of gatekeepers were entomologists who withheld nutritional farming insects to supply the food and feed sectors.’ A information from parents of these children (and their policy thorough review of regulation of insects as food in the USA makers) about their children’s traditional food source of is provided by Boyd (2019). 232 Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 6(3) Gatekeepers in the food industry Another important gatekeeping group are educators.