‘On the edge of Asia’: Australian Grand Strategy and the English-Speaking Alliance, 1967-1980 A dissertation presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Laura M. Seddelmeyer August 2014 © 2014 Laura M. Seddelmeyer. All Rights Reserved. 2 This dissertation titled ‘On the edge of Asia’: Australian Grand Strategy and the English-Speaking Alliance, 1967-1980 by LAURA M. SEDDELMEYER has been approved for the Department of History and the College of Arts and Sciences by Peter John Brobst Associate Professor of History Robert Frank Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3 ABSTRACT SEDDELMEYER, LAURA M., Ph.D., August 2014, History 'On the edge of Asia': Australian Grand Strategy and the English-Speaking Alliance, 1967-1980 Director of Dissertation: Peter John Brobst This dissertation examines the importance of geopolitics in developing an Australian strategy during a transitional, but critical, period in Australian history, and it questions what effect the changing global environment had on the informal English- speaking alliance during the late Cold War. During the late 1960s, the effects of British decolonization, Southeast Asian nationalism, and American foreign policy changes created a situation on Australia’s doorstep, which the government in Canberra could not ignore. After World War II, strategic planning in Canberra emphasized the importance of British and American presence in the Asia-Pacific region to ensure Australian security. The postwar economic challenges facing Great Britain contributed to the decision in July 1967 to withdraw forces from ‘east of Suez’ by the mid-1970s. This decision had far- reaching implications for British allies in the Asia-Pacific region, including Australia. Britain’s decision, along with President Nixon’s 1969 announcement of plans to withdraw forces from Asia after Vietnam, created a power vacuum in Southeast Asia and eliminated the basis of Australia’s long-standing strategy of forward defense. As the 1970s began, officials in Canberra took a more proactive approach in determining Australian strategy for the decade ahead. Australia’s isolation from centers of global conflict reduced the number of threats to national security, and the relative 4 stability established through détente allowed officials in Canberra to develop gradually a strategy for the defense of Australia in the absence of its traditional allies. Officials in Canberra recognized that Australia did not have to choose between its traditional allies and its Asian neighbors in order to fulfill long-term objectives. Instead, Australia adopted an approach to foreign policy in the 1970s that emphasized independence and self-reliance, ultimately expressed through a nascent grand strategy, while incorporating traditional Western alliances and existing relationships in Asia. This approach not only allowed Australia to strengthen its position as a neighborhood power, but also provided an opportunity to develop into a strong Asia-Pacific ally within a changing English- speaking alliance. 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Although I wrote this dissertation on my own, I certainly did not write it without the support of many people. My interest in Australian history began when I studied abroad at the University of Wollongong, and the history professors at Roger Williams University fostered that interest when I returned. I am especially grateful to Dr. Jeffrey Meriwether and Dr. Debra Mulligan for their interest in my academic development long after I left Rhode Island. During the last eight years as a graduate student at Ohio University, I have encountered more people who had an impact on me than I could possibly list in this space. The interaction that I had with fellow graduate students and faculty members allowed for academic and personal growth for which I will continue to be grateful. I would like to acknowledge Dr. William Frederick, Dr. Robert Ingram, and Dr. Timothy Anderson, who provided valuable feedback and encouragement throughout the writing process as part of my dissertation committee. Most of all, I am indebted to my advisor Dr. John Brobst for agreeing to work with me nearly a decade ago and for allowing me to pursue a less conventional, but not less important, topic. I still might not be able to explain the inner workings of different ships, but I have learned more than I could have imagined due to his knowledge, guidance, and patience. My dissertation research in Australia could not have been completed without generous funding from the Contemporary History Institute and the History Department at Ohio University, as well as travel support from the Graduate Student Senate. While I was in Canberra, Professor David Horner at The Australian National University kindly agreed to meet with me to discuss my project. Our conversation about Australian 6 strategy and foreign policy helped me to establish the framework upon which my dissertation is based. Additionally, I appreciated the numerous reference officers who helped me before I arrived in Canberra and while I conducted research at the National Archives. Their assistance allowed for a positive and productive experience. The time and effort involved in writing my dissertation required some sacrifices, and I will always be grateful to my family and friends for their patience and understanding when I missed phone calls, delayed visits, or declined invitations. To my friends, thank you for serving as a safety net, a sounding board, and a source of laughter during times when I needed it most. It is easier to take risks when you know that you have a soft place to land. To my family, your love, prayers, support, and humor mean more to me than I could ever articulate. A simple ‘thank you’ does not adequately express my gratitude for each of you. 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 5 List of Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... 8 List of Maps ...................................................................................................................... 10 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 1: Australia’s Trouble with ‘East of Suez’, 1967 ................................................ 30 Chapter 2: The Expansion of Problems, 1967-1968 ....................................................... 101 Chapter 3: A Strategic Shift, 1968-1969......................................................................... 142 Chapter 4: Challenges and Opportunities during a Transitional Period, 1970-1975 ...... 197 Chapter 5: Politics and Grand Strategy, 1975-1980 ....................................................... 277 Epilogue .......................................................................................................................... 334 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 342 8 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AATTV – Australian Army Training Team Vietnam ACT – Australian Capital Territory ADF – Australian Defense Force AMDA – Anglo-Malayan Defense Agreement ANZ – Australia and New Zealand ANZAM – Australia, New Zealand, Malayan security area with Britain ANZUK – Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom ANZUS – Australia, New Zealand, United States security treaty ASEAN – Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASIS – Australian Secret Intelligence Service ASPAC – Asian and Pacific Council AWM – Australian War Memorial BIOT – British Indian Ocean Territory BRUSA – Britain-United States Agreement CIA – Central Intelligence Agency CINCFE – Commander-in-Chief, Far East DSD – Defense Signals Division ECAFE - Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East EEC – European Economic Community FAD – Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee FYDP – Five Year Defense Program GATT – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GNP – Gross National Product IADS – Integrated Air Defense System IMF – International Monetary Fund INTERFET - International Force for East Timor JIC – Joint Intelligence Committee (Australia) JIO – Joint Intelligence Organization (Australia) JPC – Joint Planning Committee (Australia) MP – Member of Parliament NAA – National Archives of Australia NASA – National Aeronautics and Space Administration NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization NIC – National Intelligence Committee NSW – New South Wales, Australia PNG – Papua New Guinea QLD – Queensland, Australia RAAF – Royal Australian Air Force RAF – Royal Air Force (Great Britain) RAN – Royal Australian Navy RNZN - Royal New Zealand Navy SALT – Strategic Arms Limitations Talks 9 SEATO – Southeast Asia Treaty Organization TNA – The National Archives of the United Kingdom UKATA – United Kingdom-Australia Trade Agreement UN – United Nations USAF – United States Air Force USN – United States Navy USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics UKUSA – The United Kingdom and United States Agreement (signals intelligence) VIC – Victoria, Australia VLF – Very Low Frequency communications 10 LIST OF MAPS Page Map 1: Australia’s location ‘on the edge of Asia’ ..........................................................11 Map