verbs Verbs are the most important part of a sentence. This handout will give a brief overview of English verbs. Note: For in-depth analysis of specific uses of verbs, please see our “Verb Tenses” and “Irregular Verbs” handouts. Note: For this handout we have chosen to follow The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language since it is the most comprehensive and up-to-date source available. Some of the vocabulary and terms may be different than those you were taught previously. Key Concepts To understand and use verbs more effectively, familiarize yourself with the concepts below. Inflection Inflection describes the change in a verb to reflect properties like number, person, tense, etc. For example, “running,” “runs,” and “ran” are all different inflectional forms of the verb “run.” Subject-Verb Agreement Since English verbs convey information through inflection, you must be sure that your verb matches your subject in terms of person and number (see “Person and Number” below). If your subject is plural, make sure that your verb is also plural. If your subject is in the second person, make sure your verb is also in the second person. Subject and Verb Agree: He drives the car. Subject and Verb Disagree: He drive the car. Note: For information about subject-verb agreement, please see our handout on this topic. Situation “Situation” is a term used to talk about what is going on in a clause or sentence. Situations are linked to a sentence’s verb. For example, in the sentence “The boy kicked the ball.”, the situation is the boy’s kicking of the ball. Situations are clear in sentences with verbs indicating an action or process but sometimes aren’t as obvious in those with verbs indicating states. For instance, the situation in “The ball is red.” is the ball being red. Types of Verbs The chart on the following page depicts different types of verbs and how they are related. Writing Center SMC Campus Center 621 W. Lombard St. Room 307 www.umaryland.edu/writing 410-706-7725 Version 2.0 1 Verbs Lexical Auxiliary Non-modal Modal Lexical verb is the term used for non-auxiliary verbs. Almost all verbs are lexical verbs. Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called “helping verbs” because they help form constructions that lexical verbs cannot form on their own. Auxiliary verbs can be divided into two groups: non-modal and modal. The non-modal auxiliaries are “be,” “do,” and “have.” “Do” and “have” also can be used as lexical verbs. The modal auxiliaries are “can/could,” “may/might,” “shall/should,” “will/would,” “must,” “ought,” “need,” and “dare.” “Need” and “dare” can also be used as lexical verbs. Auxiliary / Lexical: The car was driven by the woman. Auxiliary / Lexical: You must obey the speed limit. Characteristics of Verbs Just as a person can be classified according to different characteristics (e.g., age, sex, height, hair color, etc.), verbs can be classified in terms of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood. Each characteristic provides a different piece of information about the verb. Person and Number Person provides contextual information about who or what participates in the situation. There are three persons: first person, second person, and third person. While they have other nuanced uses, each person is generally used as follows: the first person refers to the speakers, the second person to the audience, and the third person to someone or something besides the speaker and audience. Number differentiates between singular and plural. Person and number can be charted as follows: Person and Number of “Run” in the Present Tense Singular Plural First Person I run We run Second Person You run You run Third Person He/She/It runs They run Note that in the present tense, the only inflectional difference is in the third person singular. “Be” has an Writing Center SMC Campus Center 621 W. Lombard St. Room 307 www.umaryland.edu/writing 410-706-7725 2 irregular inflectional pattern and is covered in more detail at the end of this handout. Tense A verb’s tense provides the temporal location of the situation. English has two systems of tense: one based on inflection (e.g., “explain” and “explained”) and one created using the auxiliary verb “have” (e.g., “have explained,” etc.). Aspect If tense specifies the location of a situation in time, aspect describes that situation’s temporal structure. At its most basic, aspect asks the question “Is the situation complete or incomplete at the time of reference?” Perfective situations are presented as complete, whole, and finished.Imperfective situations are presented as incomplete, in progress, segmented, or recurring. Perfective Aspect: The woman drove the car home at noon. Imperfective Aspect: The woman was driving the car home at noon. Voice Voice describes the relationship of the verb and the subject of the sentence. In the active voice, the subject performs the action of the verb. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb. Active voice is the default voice in English. Passive voice is formed using the verb “be” and the past participle (see below). Active Voice: The woman drove the car. Passive Voice: The car was driven by the woman. Note: For more infomation on voice, please see our handout on this topic. Mood If tense is a grammatical form that conveys information related to time, then mood is a form that conveys information related to modality. Modality is simply the attitude of the speakers towards what they are saying. Compare the modalities expressed by the following sentences: Indicative (Fact): The woman drove the car. Imperative (Command): Drive the car! Interrogative (Question): Did the woman drive the car? Subjunctive (Implied Command or Wish): It’s critical that she drive the car. Inflectionally, English has few moods (i.e., inflectional forms indicating modality). Instead moods are con- structed using modal auxiliaries and the plain forms of lexical verbs. Example: He must drive the car. Principal Forms of Verbs In order to make full use of a verb, you need to understand its principal forms. These forms are summa- rized in the chart (also known as a paradigm) below: Writing Center SMC Campus Center 621 W. Lombard St. Room 307 www.umaryland.edu/writing 410-706-7725 3 Verb Paradigms for “Explain” and “Drive” Plain Present Explain Drive Third-Person-Singular Primary Forms Explains Drives Present Preterite Explained Drove Plain Form Explain Drive Secondary Forms Gerund-Participle Explaining Driving Past Participle Explained Driven Primary Forms Verbs have three primary forms: the plain present, the third-person-singular present, and the preterite (also known as the past). The primary forms are inflected for tense. The plain present is the form of the verb for every combination of person and number in the present tense except the third-person singular. Example: Teachers explain concepts to students. Example: We drive to work. The third-person-singular present is exactly what it sounds like: the third-person-singular inflectional form of a verb in the present tense. With only a few exceptions, the third-person-singular present is formed by adding either “s” or “es” to the plain present. Example: He explains things in a way that I understand. Example: That woman drives a truck. Note: For more information on whether to use “s” or “es,” please see our “Plurals” handout—the rules for verbs are the same as those for plurals of nouns. The preterite is the form used in creating the preterite tense. Example: She explained the theory, but we explained how to put it into practice. Example: The woman drove the car. Secondary Forms Verbs also have three secondary forms: the plain form, the gerund-participle, and the past participle. The plain form has multiple uses. It is used to form imperative and subjunctive constructions and is also used as an infinitive, either alone or with “to.” Imperative: Drive the car. Subjunctive: It’s critical that she drive the car home right away. Infinitival (To): I want to drive the car. Infinitival (Bare): He helped me drive the car. The gerund-participle is traditionally broken into two parts: the gerund and the present participle. Howev- Writing Center SMC Campus Center 621 W. Lombard St. Room 307 www.umaryland.edu/writing 410-706-7725 4 er, since the gerund and present participle of a verb will always have the same form (i.e., an “–ing” ending), the only real distinction that you need to remember is in terms of use—gerunds are used as nouns and participles as adjectives or as part of the progressive aspect. Gerund (Noun): Driving is fun. Present Participle (Adjective): People driving cars need to pay attention to the road. Progressive Aspect: She is driving the car. Note: For more information on gerunds, please see our “Nouns” handout. The past participle is used to form the passive voice and the perfect system of tenses. Passive Voice: The car was driven by the woman. Present Perfect: I have driven this car before. Past Perfect: He had driven that car many times without incident. Future Perfect: She will have driven the car three hundred miles by the time she gets here. Regular vs. Irregular Verbs Most verbs follow a basic inflectional pattern: the plain present and plain form are identical, as are the preterite and past participle. Regular Verb Pattern Plain Present Plain Form Preterite Past Participle Talk Talked However, some verbs do not follow this pattern. These verbs are called irregular verbs. Compare the verbs listed below. Verb Paradigms for “Talk,” “Cut,” “See,” and “Have” Plain Present Talk Cut See Have Third-Person Primary Forms Singular Talks Cuts Sees Has Present Preterite Talked Cut Saw Had Plain Form Talk Cut See Have Secondary Gerund- Talking Cutting Seeing Having Forms Participle Past Participle Talked Cut Seen Had In this chart, “talk” is a regular verb.