An institutional framework for the sustainable co-existence of tourism and agriculture in Botswana Patricia Kefilwe Mogomotsi orcid.org/0000-0003-2800-3230 Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Tourism Management at the North-West University Promoter: Prof M Saayman Co-Promoter: Prof A Saayman Graduation: May 2019 Student number: 29730953 DECLARATION I, Patricia Kefilwe Mogomotsi, declare that the contents of this study represent my own work and that I have not previously, in its entirety or part, submitted it at any university for a degree. The discussion herein is based on my observations and conclusions, except where due reference is acknowledged. Signature ____________________________ Date__________________________________ ii DEDICATIONS To Fish and Deborah Madigele, my sleeping angels, and to Goemene Jr and Goemeone Sr, my living angels. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This is a product of the supervision, guidance and support of Prof. Dr Melville Saayman and Prof. Dr Andrea Saayman, to whom I owe my deepest gratitude. I honestly and sincerely appreciate their comments and guidance throughout this journey. They are the best supervisors a student could ever hope for. The journey would have been an uphill climb without the financial and administrative support of the North West University and the warm staff, especially at Tourism Research in Economic Environs and Society (TREES). Their quick help in time of need was always a relief. I owe my sincere gratitude to my research assistants Dandy Badimo and Isaac Aaron. They did a big and impressive work within a concise space of time. They were very supportive and offered quality service at a minimal pay. May their efforts earn them profound blessings. I would also like to thank the focus group participants and respondents from Shorobe, Matsaudi, Shakawe and Gumare. Special thanks to all of the key informants who took part in this study. Without their cooperation, there would have been no study. My sincere thanks to the Ministry of Land Management, Water and Sanitation for the prompt and positive response to the research permit application. Special thanks to my husband and colleague, Goemeone E.J. Mogomotsi. He did the most. He was an editor, research assistant and everything in between. To Prof. Toyin (Obakeng) Kolawole, Prof. Kgathi, Prof. Mosepele, Dr Wame Hambira, Ms Kitso Moetedi and other colleagues at the Okavango Research Institute (ORI), thank you for your insights. I owe my thanks to the ORI GIS Laboratory for the maps. It would be impossible to adequately thank all the individuals who gave me valuable support and support towards the development of this thesis. All efforts from everyone, direct and indirect, towards the completion of this journey are appreciated. Above all, I thank God who made this journey possible and enjoyable. ABSTRACT The tourism industry has been identified as an industry to diversify the economy away from capital-intensive and vulnerable diamond mining sector. In Botswana, the industry is mainly concentrated around the Okavango Delta. The Okavango Delta is endowed with a vast variety of natural resources. The area is thus home for many tourism facilities, and thriving businesses for many engaged in the tourism industry, be it individuals and multinational corporations. However, there seems to be a dichotomy between the considerable presence of the tourism industry in this area and the benefit of individual households from tourism. The sector has largely failed to make significant contributions to rural development in Botswana, particularly in the Okavango Delta where it is concentrated. The failure is attributed to factors such as the weak linkages of tourism with the domestic economy, and the conflict between tourism and the agricultural sector. Generally, the Okavango Delta has experienced negative natural resource dynamics, increasing competition and conflict over natural resources, biodiversity loss and some cases of natural resource depletion. There is an imminent need to develop and implement approaches to ensure the balance between conservation of natural resources in and around the Okavango Delta and sustainable use of resources for socio-economic benefits of rural communities in the delta in the midst of inherent conflicts. The attainment of a mutually beneficial balance is dependent on the establishment of quick access and occupancy rights and the creation of a robust institutional environment with the core aim of helping to attain sustainable land use. The aim of this study is, therefore, to develop and propose a sustainable institutional framework that will allow for the coexistence of both tourism and agriculture in Botswana, using the Okavango Delta as a case study. The study adopted frameworks of two bodies of knowledge, namely; the New Institutional Economics (NIE) and sustainable tourism theories. Through literature, this study made a distinction between ‘institutions’ and organisations. Essentially, institutions are rules of the game while organisations as players of or in the game played. This study adopts the ‘rule of the game definition of institutions and defines organisations as structural, institutional arrangements that serve as a framework for structuring relational actions between agents. Veblen, Commons and other old institutional economists refined economic analysis by incorporating institutions and institutional change arguments within the economics discipline. While Veblen and other old institutional economists succeed in redefining efficiency in the context of transaction costs reduction, their discipline displayed some weaknesses. The old institutional economics lacked systematic and rigorous theoretical foundations. The NIE emerged as an attempt to incorporate institutional analysis into mainstream economics by systematically operationalising the insights of neoclassical economics. The conventional, sustainable development paradigm encompasses economic, environmental or ecological, and social and cultural dimensions. The interaction of the three pillars is often referred to as the TBL framework of sustainability. However, several studies have argued that the failure to acknowledge the importance of the fourth dimension of institutional sustainability is likely to contribute to the failure to achieve the other three dimensions. Institutional sustainability emphasises participatory decision-making processes and public involvement in natural resources management processes. An enabling institutional environment is hence necessary for strategically linking to the agricultural sector to enhance synergies, as well as to improve the contribution of the sector in agrarian communities. This study uses both secondary and primary data sources to analyse the institutions that influence the existence and the relationship between tourism and agriculture in the Okavango Delta, to determine the current economic benefits of tourism to local subsistence farmers in the rural Okavango Delta and to analyse the conflict and coexistence of agriculture and tourism in the Okavango Delta. The literature study and document analysis in this study depended on a systematic reviewing technique. Villages reflective of natural resource conflict and coexistence were identified from literature sources and through site visits in July 2017. Subsequently, four villages were conveniently sampled. These four villages are Shorobe, Matsaudi, Gumare and Shakawe. Eighteen (18) key informants with knowledge on land use conflicts and the socio- vi economic issues reflecting tensions between agriculture and tourism in the Okavango Delta were selected using expertise-oriented approach. Moreover, four focus groups were held, one in each village. A total of 221 randomly selected farming households responded with a rate of 96.1%. The study finds that post-independence, the institutional framework governing the country’s land resources is a combination of common and customary laws. Therefore, there is an interactive relation between formal and informal institutions in the country. Despite the generally good intentions of land management institutions and the accommodative land tenure systems that aim to contribute to good land use management, the reality is land use issues are still marred with challenges. The study concludes that the changing institutional landscape of natural resources management imposed trade-offs between land uses, sustainability goals and ecosystem services. The institutions oscillate between promoting coexistence and igniting conflicts between agrarian communities and contemporary land uses, primarily conservation and tourism. The study further concludes that economic benefits derived by the farmers through employment are generally low. Furthermore, there are low and weak linkages of tourism with local small-scale farmers in the region. Based on these findings, this study recommends viable and sustainable conceptual frameworks for creating a mutually inclusive environment for the economic growth of both tourism and agriculture in the Okavango Delta. The first frameworks aim at promoting the linkages between tourism and agriculture, while the second conceptual framework proposes a sustainable institutional environment premised on four key activities, which are a continuous process. Keywords: institutions, sustainable tourism, conflicts, livelihoods, agriculture, tourism vii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADR: Alternative Dispute Resolution AfDB: African Development Bank BIDPA: Botswana Institute for Development