Designing for Self-transcendent Experiences in Virtual Reality by Alexandra Jean Kitson B.Sc., University of British Columbia, 2013 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Interactive Arts and Technology Faculty of Communication, Art, and Technology c Alexandra Jean Kitson 2020 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Fall 2020 Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation. Declaration of Committee Name: Alexandra Jean Kitson Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Thesis title: Designing for Self-transcendent Experiences in Virtual Reality Committee: Chair: Kate Hennessy Associate Professor, Interactive Arts and Technology Bernhard E. Riecke Supervisor Professor, Interactive Arts and Technology Alissa Antle Committee Member Professor, Interactive Arts and Technology Andrea Gaggioli Committee Member Professor, Psychology, Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Steven Barnes Examiner Associate Professor, Psychology, University of British Columbia Giuseppe Riva External Examiner Professor Department of Psychology Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore ii Ethics Statement iii Abstract This thesis contributes to Psychology and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) research with a focus on the design of immersive experiences that support self-transcendence. Self- transcendence is defined as a decrease in a sense of self and a increase in unity with the world. It can change what individuals know and value, their perspective on the world and life, evolving them as a grown person. Consequently, self-transcendence is gaining attention in Psychology, Philosophy, and Neuroscience. But, we are still far from understanding the complex phenomenological and neurocognitive aspects of self-transcendence, as well as its implications for individual growth and psychological well-being. In reviewing the methods for studying self-transcendence, we found differing conceptual models determine different ways for understanding and studying self-transcendence. Understanding self-transcendence is made especially challenging because of its ineffable qualities and extraordinary conditions in which it takes place. For that reason, researchers have began to look at technological solutions for both eliciting self-transcendence to better study it under controlled and replicable conditions as well as giving people greater access to the experience. We reviewed immersive, interactive technologies that aim to support positive experiences such as self-transcendence and extracted a set of design considerations that were prevalent across experiences. We then explored two different focuses of self-transcendence: awe and lucid dreaming. First, we took an existing VR experience designed specifically to support the self-transcendent ex- perience of awe and looked at how the mindset and physical setting surrounding that VR experience might better support the experience of and accommodation of awe. Second, we delved deep into lucid dreaming to better understand the aspects that could help inform the design of an immersive experience that supports self-transcendence. We put those de- sign ideas into practice by developing a neurofeedback system that aims to support lucid dreaming practices in an immersive experience. Through these review papers and design explorations, we contribute to the understanding of how one might design and evaluate immersive technological experiences that support va- rieties of self-transcendence. We hope to inspire more work in this area that holds promise in better understanding human nature and living our best lives. iv Keywords: virtual reality; immersion; self-transcendence; positive technology; neurofeed- back; methods; attention; lucid dreaming; awe; altered states of consciousness v Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor, Bernhard Riecke, for his guidance throughout my grad- uate studies. Thank you for believing in my abilities and supporting my work. Thank you to my committee members, Alissa Antle and Andrea Gaggioli. Alissa has given me the tools to approach any topic with rigour and challenged me to think deeply about the method- ological approaches to studying self-transcendence. Andrea’s enthusiasm and knowledge has inspired me to tackle such a challenging topic and follow my passion. I am grateful to all of you for the opportunity to learn from you and grow into a confident researcher. Thank you to Thecla Schiphorst, for encouraging me to step outside my comfort zone to pursue a topic that is personally meaningful and fulfilling. To Steve DiPaola, for the stim- ulating conversations and unwavering support. To my collaborators, Alice Chirico, Mirjana Prpa, Reese Muntean, Katerina Stepanova, Ivan Aguilar, and my colleagues in the iSpace Lab for all the work we did together and helping shape this thesis. Thank you to my partner, Andy Bacon, for being there in the ups and downs of this long journey. You inspire me to be my best self. To my parents and gma, for helping to shape the person I am today by fostering my curiosity and love of learning. To my sister, for her unconditional support and pet therapy sessions. And, to my friends and extended family, for putting up with weekends, holidays, and trips where I worked on this thesis and reminding me to also take some time for myself. Finally, I want to acknowledge that the work presented in this thesis has been con- ducted on the traditional territories of the Musqueam, Squamish, Tsleil-Waututh, Katzie, Kwikwetlem, Qayqayt, Kwantlen, Semiahmoo and Tsawwassen peoples. vi Table of Contents Declaration of Committee ii Ethics Statement iii Abstract iv Acknowledgements vi Table of Contents vii List of Tables xvi List of Figures xvii Introduction 1 Defining Self-transcendence . 1 Self-transcendence and Long-term Well-being and Positive Human Functioning . 2 Defining Long-term Well-being and Positive Human Functioning . 2 The Relationship between Self-transcendence and Well-being . 3 Mental and Physical Well-being . 3 Pro-sociality . 4 Self-management . 5 Life Quality and Satisfaction . 6 Research Questions . 6 Thesis Contributions and Overview . 7 Chapter 1. Measuring Self-transcendence: A Review on Research and Evalu- ation Methods for Investigating Self-transcendence . 8 Chapter 2. Immersive Interactive Technologies for Positive Change: A Scop- ing Review and Design Considerations . 8 Chapter 3. Can Lucid Dreaming Research Guide Self-transcendence Experi- ence Design in Virtual Reality? . 9 Chapter 4. Are You Dreaming? A Phenomenological Study on Understanding Lucid Dreams as a Tool for Introspection in Virtual Reality . 9 vii Chapter 5. Designing Mind(set) and Setting for Profound Emotional Expe- riences in Virtual Reality . 10 Chapter 6. Lucid Loop: A Virtual Deep Learning Biofeedback System for Lucid Dreaming Practice . 10 Chapter 7. An Exploratory Study on an Immersive Environment and Neu- rofeedback System with Modified Deep Dream 360 Video to Support Lucid Dreaming Practices . 11 Chapter 8. Discussion and Conclusion . 11 1 A Review on Research and Evaluation Methods for Investigating Self- transcendence 12 1.1 Abstract . 12 1.2 Introduction . 12 1.3 Theories of Self-transcendence . 13 1.3.1 Conceptual . 13 1.3.2 Phenomenological . 16 1.3.3 Physiological . 18 1.4 Literature Search Methods . 22 1.5 Results: Research/Evaluation Methods for Investigating Self-transcendence 23 1.5.1 Questionnaires and Surveys . 23 1.5.1.1 Mindfulness Questionnaires . 23 1.5.1.2 Flow Questionnaires . 24 1.5.1.3 Self-transcendent Positive Emotions and Awe Questionnaires 24 1.5.1.4 Peak and Mystical Experience Questionnaires . 26 1.5.1.5 Altered States of Consciousness and Transcendence Ques- tionnaires . 26 1.5.2 Diary and Journal Entry . 28 1.5.3 Interviews . 29 1.5.3.1 Phenomenological Interviews . 29 1.5.3.2 Concurrent Interviews . 30 1.5.3.3 Retrospective Interviews . 31 1.5.4 Neurological and Physiological Measures . 31 1.5.4.1 Neurological Measures . 32 1.5.4.2 Physiological Measures . 35 1.5.5 Behavioural Measures . 37 1.6 Discussion . 38 1.6.1 Conceptual Challenges of Self-transcendence Methods . 38 1.6.2 Empirical Support of Self-transcendence Methods . 39 1.6.3 Recommendations . 42 viii 1.6.3.1 Assessing and Investigating Self-transcendence in the Moment 42 1.6.3.2 Assessing and Investigating Self-transcendence as a Value, Developmental Process, or Personality Trait . 45 1.6.4 Future Directions . 48 1.7 Conclusion . 49 1.8 Author Contributions . 50 2 Immersive Interactive Technologies for Positive Change: A Scoping Re- view and Design Considerations 51 2.1 Abstract . 51 2.2 Introduction . 52 2.2.1 Psychology . 52 2.2.2 Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) and Computer Science . 55 2.2.3 Motivation . 56 2.2.4 Defining Immersive, Interactive, and Well-being . 56 2.2.5 Objectives and Research Questions . 58 2.3 Method . 59 2.3.1 Scoping Review Protocol . 59 2.3.2 Identifying Relevant Studies . 59 2.3.3 Study Selection . 60 2.3.4 Charting the Data . 61 2.3.5 Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results . 63 2.4 Results . 63 2.4.1 Design Elements and Interaction Strategies . 64 2.4.2 Input / Output Modalities . 66 2.5 Discussion . 67 2.5.1 Design Elements and Interaction Strategies for Supporting Positive Change in Immersive, Interactive Technologies . 71 2.5.1.1 Instruments for Analysis . 71 2.5.1.2 Phenomena and Theoretical Constructs . 71 2.5.1.3 Content Features . 72 2.5.1.4 Physical Activity . 72 2.5.2 Input-Output Mappings of Immersive, Interactive Technologies for Eliciting Positive Change . 73 2.5.2.1 Immersive, Interactive Technologies . 73 2.5.2.2 Input . 73 2.5.2.3 Output . 74 2.5.2.4 Outcome . 74 2.5.3 A Framework for Immersive Interactive Technologies for Positive Change 75 ix 2.5.4 Design Considerations for Future Immersive Interactive Technologies for Positive Change . 76 2.5.5 Limitations . 79 2.6 Conclusions . 80 2.7 Conflicts of Interest . 81 2.8 Author Contributions . 81 2.9 Funding . 81 2.10 Acknowledgments .