Language Appropriation in New Religious Movements: Identity, Conflict, Boundaries, and Pejorative Terms by Kristian Klippenstein A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Religious Studies University of Alberta © Kristian Klippenstein, 2020 ii Abstract As a broad classificatory category, new religious movements (NRMs) refers to groups as varied as they are unorthodox. As diverse emergent agents of restoration or change, the social transformations that their doctrines promote and behaviors achieve vary in both articulation and form. To cope with this diversity, one strand of popular and academic inquiry into NRMs stretching from 1960s anti-cult literature to the present utilizes a hermeneutic of meaninglessness. This widely deployable approach to reading new religious texts argues that NRM leaders (mis)use words in their efforts to befuddle and seduce potential converts – recruitment, rather than coherence, guides vocabulary choice in new religious doctrines. Promoters of this hermeneutic point to seemingly catachrestic deployments of familiar terms as evidence of NRMs as organizations that abuse and misuse language. While a widely applicable tool for examining new religious texts is valuable, the hermeneutic of meaninglessness fails both in its understanding of language and its depiction of NRMs as careless, incoherent language users. This thesis combines recent re-appraisals of religious studies theory with close readings of texts produced by Scientology, Peoples Temple, the Children of God, and the Jesus People to reject the hermeneutic of meaninglessness while providing an alternate analytical framework for approaching new religious texts. In particular, it identifies moments of pejorative language appropriation and adaptation in new religious texts as sites of identity and worldview construction, contestation and conflict with cultural interlocutors, and boundary maintenance. Rather than evidence of terminological paucity, language appropriation in new religious texts reveals persistent patterns for crafting communication strategies, fostering in-group fluency, and ascribing organizational functions to semantic change. iii To draw out language appropriation’s functional presence in new religious discourse, and to highlight the agonistic dimension of new religious language, this thesis adapts Tim Murphy’s language-based theory of religion, particularly his definition of religion as “the structuring of asymmetrical relations between real or imagined groups or classes.” It also conceptualizes new religious texts as examples of M. A. K. Halliday’s model of “anti-languages.” Combined with sociolinguistic research on language’s relation to identity, conflict, and boundaries as well as scholarship on pejorative/slurring speech, these theories form the basis for an illuminating examination of language choices in new religions. To demonstrate the organizational effects of fostering fluency and adapting vocabulary, the thesis first turns to L. Ron Hubbard’s writings on language in Dianetics and Scientology. It explores his conception of language change in relation to new religious discoveries, insistence on proper definition as a key aspect of effective group practice, and doctrinal/behavioral apparatus for promoting fluency amongst Scientologists. Moreover, the thesis explores his doctrine of “propaganda through the redefinition of words” as a conceptual analogue to the language appropriation and adaptation processes that takes place in other NRMs, discussing Hubbard’s adaptation of squirrel and psychiatry as examples. Peoples Temple’s audiotapes, the Children of God’s MO Letters, and the Jesus People’s Hollywood Free Paper, in turn, each present an opportunity to trace the appropriation of particular pejorative/slurring terms in individual NRMs. Guided by Halliday’s observation that anti-languages most often adapt vocabulary that relates to major organizational concerns, the thesis traces the borrowing and altering of nigger in Peoples Temple, whore/harlot/hooker in the Children of God, and freak in the Jesus People. These terms relate to doctrinal and practical interests in race, sex, and counterculture, respectively. Analyzing each group’s corpora reveals iv both the persistence of language appropriation as a discursive tactic and the organizational divergences in doctrine, practice, and demographic between each NRM. As such, a language appropriation-focused approach to new religious texts is a broadly applicable framework for studying new religions. It reveals patterns across organizations while highlighting distinctive elements, encourages textual analysis of denotative and connotative change without advocating for a particular term’s definition, and matches new religious examples to religious studies theory and sociolinguistic concepts. v Preface This thesis is an original work by Kristian Klippenstein. Some of the research conducted for this thesis appears in peer-reviewed publications by the same author. Segments of chapters 2-3, and a substantial portion of chapter 5, appear in Kristian D. Klippenstein, “Language Appropriation and Identity Construction in New Religious Movements: Peoples Temple as Test Case,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 82, no. 2: 348–380. Segments of chapter 6 appear in Kristian D. Klippenstein, “Spiritual Siblings: The Function of New Religions in Peoples Temple Doctrine,” Nova Religio 22, no. 2: 40–64. vi Acknowledgements First and foremost, I am grateful for my supervisor, Dr. Stephen Kent, whose expertise and long-suffering wit sustained my interest in new religions throughout an unexpectedly long degree, and whose concern for the practical implications of participation in new religions grounded my curiosity regarding theory and rhetoric. I likewise appreciated the advice and encouragement of Dr. Jean DeBernardi and Dr. Josie Hendrickson, who formed my supervisory committee. Your insights into pedagogy and scholarship informed and improved my own scholarly efforts. Dr. Jane Samson asked thoughtful, probing questions at both my candidacy examination and thesis defence, and I was honored to have Dr. Hugh Urban as an external examiner at my defence. Thanks also to Dr. Andrew Gow for serving as a committee member throughout much of my degree, and to Dr. Francis Landy for gamely assisting with my candidacy examination. I learned from all of you. I was lucky to both teach and study as part of the University’s Religious Studies program, and I appreciate the leadership and opportunities that each of its Program Director provided. In the Office of Interdisciplinary Studies, the ever knowledgeable and supportive Nicola DiNicola made my roles as student and instructor considerably easier (and much more enjoyable). Generous financial support from the University, as well as the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, enabled me to pursue my studies. My fellow students buoyed my spirits and inspired my curiosity throughout years of reading, writing, grading, and presenting: Owain Bamforth, Melody Everest-Harkema, Dr. Glen Fairen, Michael Gillingham, Dr. Patrick Hart, Yasmin Merchant, Dr. John Parish, Dr. Peter Sabo, Kayla Swanson, Rick Van Mannen, and Dr. Allan Wright – I admire you all. vii This degree would not have been possible without the patience and encouragement of my parents Edith and Rick, my siblings Taliah and Jonathan, and my partner Paige: thank you for your support. Finally, I could not have completed this journey without those companions whose passions and resilience served as a model throughout my studies. Alexis, Alison, Amanda, Dr. Amelia and Luke, Chris, Dave, Elise, Jane, Joe, Kim, Kirsti, Lewis, Sarah and Dr. Stu, Dr. Scott, Sineen, Sue, and Dr. Trish – thank you for accompanying me. viii Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………….….ii Preface………………………………….………………………………………………………...v Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………………....vi Chapter 1 “A Type of Hypnotic Music”: New Religious Language..........................................1 Function, Not Flaw..............................................................................................................1 Religion-as-Language, Meaninglessness, and Sociolinguistics..........................................7 Methodology and Outline..................................................................................................22 Chapter 2 Relentlessly Relational: Tim Murphy’s Definition of Religion.............................36 Critiquing Phenomenology................................................................................................37 What is (a) Theory (of Religion)?......................................................................................42 Murphy’s Semiotic Alternative..........................................................................................44 Defining Religion...............................................................................................................53 Inviting Adaptation............................................................................................................59 Chapter 3 Using (Bad) Language: Identity, Conflict, and Boundaries..................................65 Narrowing the Focus..........................................................................................................66 Anti-languages: Contesting Authority...............................................................................70 Language, Identity,