University of Huddersfield Repository Thurgood, Graham A history of nursing in Halifax and Huddersfield 1870-1960 Original Citation Thurgood, Graham (2008) A history of nursing in Halifax and Huddersfield 1870-1960. Doctoral thesis, University of Huddersfield. This version is available at http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/8353/ The University Repository is a digital collection of the research output of the University, available on Open Access. Copyright and Moral Rights for the items on this site are retained by the individual author and/or other copyright owners. Users may access full items free of charge; copies of full text items generally can be reproduced, displayed or performed and given to third parties in any format or medium for personal research or study, educational or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge, provided: • The authors, title and full bibliographic details is credited in any copy; • A hyperlink and/or URL is included for the original metadata page; and • The content is not changed in any way. For more information, including our policy and submission procedure, please contact the Repository Team at: [email protected]. http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/ A history of nursing in Halifax and Huddersfield 1870-1960. By Graham John Thurgood. A thesis submitted to the University of Huddersfield in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Awarded by the University of Huddersfield. December 2008. - 1 - Copyright Statement i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns any copyright in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Huddersfield the right to use such Copyright for any administrative, promotional, educational and/or teaching purposes. ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts, may be made only in accordance with the regulations of the University Library. Details of these regulations may be obtained from the Librarian. This page must form part of any such copies made. iii. The ownership of any patents, designs, trade marks and any and all other intellectual property rights except for the Copyright (the “Intellectual Property Rights”) and any reproductions of copyright works, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property Rights and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property Rights and/or Reproductions. - 2 - Volume 1 - table of contents Table of contents Acknowledgements Abstract List of Figures List of Tables List of photographs Abbreviations Glossary Chapter I: Introduction 16 Introduction to the study. 16 The context of the study. 16 Why study the history of nursing. 16 Why study the history of nursing in Halifax and Huddersfield. 17 Where are Halifax and Huddersfield? 18 Who is the researcher and what is their background? 18 Research aims and objectives. 19 Introduction to chapters. 20 Conclusion of chapter. 22 Chapter 2: Literature review 23 History of Nursing Research. 23 Historical Nursing Research. 25 - International historical nursing research. 26 - Historical nursing research in the UK. 27 - National and regional institutional histories. 28 - General nursing. 29 - District Nursing Associations (DNAs). 30 - Local historical nursing research. 31 - West Yorkshire. 31 - Institutions in Halifax and Huddersfield. 31 Historiography. 32 - History of nursing from below. 33 - Individual nurses – biographies. 33 - Autobiographies. 34 - Oral history and the life story approach. 34 - Archives: newspapers, memorabilia, artefacts, photographs 37 Gender. 37 - Roles of men and women in nursing. 38 - The work of nurses. 38 - Female nurses. 40 - Nurse-doctor relationships. 40 - Male nurses. 42 Conclusion of chapter. 43 Chapter 3 – Methodology. 45 Research Philosophy. 45 Methodology. 47 Rosenberg’s eight areas of importance. 47 Charles E. Rosenberg. 48 - Clinical aspects of medical history. 48 - The challenge of writing Twentieth Century history. 49 - 3 - - The export of American concepts into non-American settings. 50 - Rosenberg’s themes and questions. 50 Issues considered under Rosenberg's eight areas of importance. 51 - History from below. 51 - Gender and the professions. 51 - Knowledge and authority. 51 - The role of technology. 52 - New Institutional history. 52 - The Hospital as problematic. 52 - The Nurse as worker. 53 - History as meaning. 53 The application and integration of Rosenberg’s model. 53 Summary of Rosenberg’s model. 54 Methods. 54 Stage 1. 54 Stage 2. 54 Archival documentary evidence. 55 - Selection of archives. 55 - Archives searched. 56 - Collection of archival data. 57 - Sources in Halifax. 57 - Sources in Huddersfield. 58 - Sources in Yorkshire. 58 - Sources in Manchester. 59 - Sources nationally. 59 - The use of archival evidence. 59 - The use of photographic evidence. 60 Conclusions relating to archival sources. 62 Oral history. 62 Planning and preparing the interviews. 62 - Personal development. 62 - Devising an interview schedule and questions. 63 - Pilot study. 63 Sample. 64 - Contacting potential interviewees. 64 - Geographical location of the nurses in the sample. 65 - Selection of interviewees from the sample. 65 Interview Process. 66 Recording techniques. 67 Social skills of interviewing. 67 Transcribing the taped interviews. 70 Summary of oral history. 71 Analysis and interpretation of archival and oral history data. 71 Stage 3 - Data analysis. 71 - Coding - using a priori themes. 72 The use of NVivo. 74 - Memos. 76 Interpretation of data. 77 - Validity. 77 - Reliability. 77 - Credibility. 77 - Authenticity. 78 The strengths and weaknesses of using of NVivo. 79 Conclusion of methods. 80 Ethical issues. 80 - Informed Consent. 81 - Confidentiality. 82 - Copyright. 83 Documentary and oral history collaboration. 83 Stage 4. 84 - 4 - Conclusion of chapter. 84 Chapter 4: New Institutional history. 86 Nursing in Halifax and Huddersfield prior to 1870. 86 Halifax Institutions 1870-1960. 87 - St John’s Workhouse / Hospital (SJH) 88 - Halifax General Hospital (HGH). 88 - Royal Halifax Infirmary (RHI). 88 - Northowram Hall Hospital (NHH). 89 - Isolation Fever Hospital, Shelf. 89 - King Edward V11 Memorial District Nursing Association (HDNA)90 - Spring Hall Convalescent Auxiliary Hospital, Halifax. 90 Conclusion of Halifax institutions. 90 - Huddersfield Institutions. 91 - St Luke’s Hospital (SLH). 91 - Huddersfield Royal Infirmary (HRI). 92 - Green Lea Hospital. 92 - Bradley Wood Sanatorium (BWS). 92 - Mill Hill Hospital (MHH). 93 - Huddersfield District Victoria Sick Nurses Association. 93 - Princess Royal Hospital Municipal Maternity Home (MMH). 94 - Deanhouse Hospital (DHH) Netherthong, Holmfirth. 95 - The Huddersfield War Hospital, and Auxiliary Hospitals. 95 - Holme Valley Memorial Hospital (HVMH). 95 Conclusion of Huddersfield institutions. 95 Conclusion of chapter. 96 Chapter 5: Gender and the professions 97 Female nurses. 98 Motivation to become a nurse. 98 - The impact of dolls and play in childhood. 99 - The impact of nurses’ experiences of personal or family illness. 99 - I always wanted to be a nurse. 100 Comradeship. 100 Age and marriage bars. 101 Male Nurses. 102 Nurse-doctor relationships. 106 Professionalisation of nursing. 108 The fight for registration. 109 Conclusion of chapter 109 Chapter 6: Knowledge and authority 111 Knowledge. 112 Clinical ward areas and practice. 112 - The General Nursing Council’s role. 112 - Learning – the good and bad. 113 - Assessment of theory and practice. 113 - Educational classroom settings. 114 - The Sister Tutor’s role. 114 - District Nurses. 114 - Joint and Affiliated Training Schemes. 115 Authority. 116 - Rules and conduct. 116 - Discipline and conformity. 117 - Authority and power, and exploitation and social control. 118 - Organisational hierarchies and routines. 119 Conclusion of chapter. 119 Chapter 7: Role of Technology. 121 Clinical care developments. 121 - 5 - - Hygiene. 121 - Use of equipment. 122 - District Nurses use of cars. 123 - Public health. 124 Medical advances and discoveries. 124 - Antibiotics. 125 - Penicillin. 125 - M & B 693. 125 - Streptomycin. 126 The impact of War. 126 - Wartime in West Yorkshire. 126 - Halifax in the First World War. 126 - Huddersfield in the First World War. 127 - Interwar years. 127 - The Second World War. 128 - Halifax in the Second World War. 128 - Huddersfield in the Second World War. 129 - Post war. 129 Conclusion of chapter. 130 Chapter 8: The nurse as worker. 131 Student experiences. 131 Clinical care experiences of students. 132 - Religion. 133 - Qualified nurses experiences. 134 - Rapid promotion. 135 - Employment prospects. 135 - Part-time working. 136 Nurse pay and conditions. 136 - Pay. 137 - District Nurses pay. 139 Working conditions. 140 - District Nurses. 140 - Working and off duty times. 141 - Health and Safety. 141 - Superannuation Pension Schemes. 142 - The long and unsocial hours. 142 Methods of organising nursing care. 143 - Workbooks and allocation of work. 143 Conclusion of chapter. 144 Chapter 9: The hospital as problematic. 146 The concept of institutions. 146 - Poor Law (Municipal) and Voluntary institutions. 147 - Fever Hospitals. 148 - District Nursing. 148 - Nurses Homes. 148 - Overcrowding. 149 - Hospital closures. 151 Pre-NHS and post-NHS health developments. 151 - Pre-NHS. 152 - Post-NHS. 152 The role of